Asylum for Wayward Immigrants: Historic Ports and Colonial Settlements in Northeast North America Allison Bain1,* and Gary King2 Abstract - The arrival of Europeans along the northeastern seaboard of North America heralded the introduction of Old World fl ora and fauna to the region. The analysis of archaeologically recovered beetle remains suggests that many species may have journeyed across the Atlantic in ships’ ballast, food stores, and other provisions. The creation of artifi cial habitats which occurred as a result of the fi sheries and the construction of settlements provided an ecological corridor that facilitated the successful invasion of the European biota. Many of these adventive or accidentally introduced beetle species are associated with synanthropic and disturbed-land habitats which would have been mimicked in the coastal colonies. The arrival of this fauna ultimately contributed to the creation of Europeanized spaces upon the North American landscape. 1CELAT, Université Laval, 1030, Avenue des Sciences-humaines, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada. 2Groupe de recherche en archéométrie, Université Laval, 1030, Avenue des Sciences-humaines, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada. *Corresponding author - Allison.Bain@hst.ulaval.ca. Introduction It has been almost 40 years since historian Alfred Crosby penned the Columbian Exchange, where he outlined the post-Columbian transformation of the fl ora and fauna in former European colonies around the world (Crosby 1972). This exotic infl ux included domesticated animals, economic and ornamental plant and tree species, and their accompanying weeds and insects. He later refi ned his arguments in his 1986 seminal work Ecological Imperialism, where he argued that the European fl ora and fauna were easily able to invade habitats similar to those found in Europe because these were Europeanized spaces, with little competition (Crosby 1986, 2006). Environmental archaeology has the privileged position to examine many aspects of this fl oral and faunal transfer, whether intentioned or not, and insects, especially beetles, are recognized as valuable sources of environmental and climatic data because they furnish detailed information about past environments and climates on or around archaeological sites. In this article, we examine how archaeoentomological studies from 17th and 18th century ports of Quebec City, Boston, and the Ferryland site in Newfoundland tell a story of the creation of humandominated habitats and communities and transatlantic biological transfer, including the introduction of many new insect species to the New World. Coastal or riverside ports played a key role in shaping the New World during the colonial period, though early explorers, whalers, and fi shermen would have begun the Columbian Exchange. The cod-fi shing industry in Newfoundland involved considerable deforestation along the heavily forested landscapes of Newfoundland; investigation of early 17th-century documents from the Avalon Peninsula reveals complaints about the lack of trees and the damage done by the fi shermen (Cell 1982). Complaints about deforestation were not unique to Newfoundland. In fact, the Shawmut Peninsula, where the City of Boston is located today, lacked wood resources as early as 1648 (Mrozowski 1987:1). Ballast dumping also contributed to environmental changes near northeastern ports. In the 16th century, a vessel coming out to Newfoundland for the seasonal cod fi shery would have carried little cargo as they took on rocks, sand, turf, peat, and any manner of shore-side material to fi ll up and weight their empty hulls. Early 17th-century letters from Newfoundland complain about ship’s captains polluting the waters due to ballast dumping (Cell 1982:225, Lindroth 1957:157). A huge volume of ballast material was disposed of every year, and untold tons of European stones and soils were thus transported to the New World. Ballast dumping in the Northeast, with its strong tides, would have resulted in large volumes of European materials, including turf, moving onshore, representing an important means of biological transfer. Documenting changing environments Like the analysis of other biological remains from archaeological sediments such as plants and bones, the interpretation of the insect fauna can shed light on many past activities which include hygienic, dietary, and medicinal practices (Bain 2001, 2004; Bain et al. 2008, 2009; Buckland 1978, 1990; Busvine 1976; Elias 2010; Kenward 1999; Kenward and Hall 1995; Panagiotakopulu 2004) and may also indicate the quality of the food consumed by a site’s occupants (Bain 1998). As little archaeoentomology is practiced in North America, its use as a means to reconstruct past environments and to explore biogeographic transformations of the modern period (Bain and Prévost 2010, King 2010, Prévost and Bain 2007, Schwert 1996) remains underexploited. However, scientists such as Carl Lindroth (1957) suggested that the careful examination Special Volume 1:109–124 Archaeologies of the Early Modern North Atlantic 2011 Journal of the North Atlantic 110 Journal of the North Atlantic Special Volume 1 of the adventive insect fauna is one of the best means to understand these biological mysteries. Almost thirty years later, in Ecological Imperialism, Crosby examined the global phenomenon of the transformation of temperate landscapes across North America, the eastern coast of South America, Australia, and New Zealand into Europeanized landscapes or Neo- Europes, containing plants and animal species which arrived during European colonization and came to dominate the local fl ora and fauna. The introduction of plants we commonly refer to as weeds is a compelling example. The decimation by disease and warfare of the First Nations’ populations in eastern North America left behind, at times, partly deforested lands and fi elds ideal for the introduction of a host of European species that included domesticated animals, economic and medicinal plants, and of course, their accompanying weed and insect species. Accounts as early as the 17th century mention plants recognized by early travellers as those found in their native Europe (e.g., Boucher 1664, Josselyn 1671). Unfortunately, insects and arachnids are rarely mentioned in North American historical documents from the 17th and 18th centuries, except when their presence had economic impacts or was noted as a source of irritation. The botanist and disciple of Linneaus, Pehr Kalm, is an exceptional source for entomological data. During a trip to North America from 1748 to 1751, he was charged with creating a catalogue of species in the New World. His descriptions, which make direct comparisons to the European flora and fauna he recognized, provide an excellent resource for 18th-century landscape studies and constitute one of the rare accounts that mention insects (Rousseau and Béthune 1977:408). The adventive coleopteran or beetle species of eastern Canada have received significant attention from entomologists (see review of these studies in Klimaszewski et al. 2010:9–14), and surveys of the present North American insect fauna indicate that the biological transfer of European species to the New World has clearly taken place (Sailer 1983). This paper therefore yields an important time-depth perspective on these otherwise invisible occupants of the Northeast during the modern period, and suggests that Palaearctic biota were clearly established as early as the mid-seventeenth century, and that the number of adventive taxa steadily increased over time. Identifying adventive species Successful colonization of new habitats by foreign species requires that the fi rst arrivals establish viable, self-sustaining populations (Saki et al. 2001). The traits necessary for establishment vary in accordance with habitat type: complex and established natural community (cf. Elton 1927), human-disturbed habitat (cf. Horvitz et al. 1998), and undisturbed natural island communities (cf. Elton 1958). Saki et al. (2001) argue that a successful invasive species will exhibit a high fecundity rate as well as competitiveness. The advantage of a species being able to quickly produce large numbers of offspring and out-compete competitors is apparent when it is confronted with an established natural community where breeding sites are already occupied, food is already being eaten, and shelters are currently occupied by other species. In order to survive, the invasive species must establish itself in a niche (using the term in a broad sense), often through the displacement of one or more organisms by means of interspecies competition (Saki et al. 2001). However, alien species are not always faced with resistance from native species. In areas that have been modified or destroyed by human influence or natural disasters, niches may be vacant. The modification or destruction of an area may temporarily “empty” previously occupied niches by displacing or killing the organisms who resided in them. Moreover, major alterations to a habitat may result in the indigenous organisms being no longer suitably adapted to the area (cf. Whitehouse 2006, Whitehouse and Smith 2004). When the European colonists arrived in the New World, it was oftentimes necessary to clear forest and brush for the construction of settlements and the cultivation of crops. This land clearance would have displaced some of the indigenous species and created available niches for the invasive species (King 2011). A European insect species which came with the rubble and soil used as ship’s ballast would have been able to carve out a niche in the disturbed land around the colonial settlements and may have faced little competition from the indigenous species, which were likely displaced by the human-induced modifications (King 2011). When competition for resources and space is minimal, the only conflicts with which an invasive species are confronted concern the ecological constraints inherent to that species. Recent syntheses in entomology suggest there are identifi able means by which insects arrived to eastern Canada. These mechanisms include: ballast dumping, the importation of agricultural, horticultural, silvicultural (seedling and shrub imports), and other wood products, and the transportation of livestock and stored grains, as well as intentional introductions (Klimaszewski et al. 2010). However, it is also important to consider how insects classifi ed as adventives receive this label. Carl Lindroth’s The Faunal Connections between Europe and North America (Lindroth 1957) remains central to this discussion. He suggested key criteria that must be considered when identifying alien species, including 2011 A. Bain and G. King 111 charting its dispersal across the environment (historical criterion) as well as identifying foreign species by their presence in certain ecological niches (ecological criterion). When a plant or animal species with a restricted ecology is identifi ed in environments such as ports and settlements along the Atlantic Coast as part of a fauna dominated by European species, these circumstances may suggest that it is a foreign introduction. A particular geographic distribution is another factor (geographical criterion) (Lindroth 1957:135–142); for example, species that have distributions limited to the Atlantic and Pacifi c Coasts of North America, and perhaps throughout the Great Lakes and Mississippi waterways, are likely to have been introduced. Host-specifi c insects are part of the biological criterion, as they could not have been introduced before their host plants, while the taxonomic criterion belies the taxonomic challenges of trying to identify new insect species or sub-species or identify allochthonous New World populations of Palaearctic species (Lindroth 1957:142). Understanding the genetic makeup of certain groups will clarify some of these taxonomic relationships (King et al. 2009), while archaeoentomology and palaeoentomology may contribute important, well-dated data to these arguments. Early ports in Northeastern North America Archaeological excavations at seventeenth-century ports are key areas to target for the detailed study of sediment samples that may indicate biological transfer. Well-dated, sealed organic contexts play a fundamental role in documenting the introduction and impact of biota. The forms of early ports varied signifi cantly. At the Ferryland site on Newfoundland’s Avalon Peninsula, a seawall was constructed in the 1620s, allowing ships to come alongside for the loading and unloading of cargo (Gaulton 1997). In Quebec City on the shores of the St. Lawrence River, enterprising merchants such as Charles Aubert de la Chesnaye built on water lots along the shoreline to exploit this opportunity. With a shallow foreshore and long tidal range, large vessels remained moored in the roadstead, the deeper part of the river, while smaller vessels transported material to the shore (Rouleau 2009). This study will focus on three sites in the Northeast (Fig. 1) and will outline the changes seen in the insect fauna which are a direct result of European settlement. Preserved beetle remains recovered during archaeological privy or latrine excavations will be examined from the Ferryland site, and from Boston’s Cross Street Back Lot site. A third site, which represents two shoreline deposits on the beach from Quebec City’s Lower Town, will also be discussed. Methods Archaeoentomological data from Northeastern shores The insect samples analyzed spanned the early 17th to the fi rst half of the 18th century (Table 1). Contents were studied from a privy in the seawall at the Ferryland site on Newfoundland’s Avalon Peninsula (1621–1673), while a second privy from the Cross Street Back Lot site in Boston (1675–1740) was also examined. These are compared to beachfront accumulations in Lower Town, Quebec City at the Îlot Hunt site, where two shoreline deposits were formed between 1675 and 1721. The samples were processed using kerosene fl oatation as outlined by Kenward et al. (1980, 1986) and modifi ed by Bain (2001), and sieved to 250 Figure 1. Map of Northeastern North America indicating the study sites. (Map produced by Andrée Heroux). 112 Journal of the North Atlantic Special Volume 1 Table 1. Archaeoentomological evidence from early colonial period sites in the Northeast. (The symbol “+” indicates species considered to be adventive to North America, while “*” indicates Holarctic species. Species with uncertain status are indicated by the symbol “§”. Taxonomy after Arnett and Thomas (2000), Arnett et al. (2002), and Gordon and Skelley (2007). Ferryland Boston Québec City 1621–1673 1675–1740 1675–1699 c. 1700–1725 Species latrine latrine beach beach COLEOPTERA Carabidae Bembidion musicola Hayward X B. petrosum petrosum Gebler* X B. scopulinum Kirby X X B. tetracolum Say+ X B. versicolor LeConte or mimus Hayward X Pterostichus adstrictus Eschscholtz* X Stenelophus comma Fabricius X Dicheirotrichus (Trichochellus) cognatus Gyllenhal* X Chlaenius sericeus sericeus Forster X Agonum sp. X Hydrophilidae Helophorus frosti Smetana X Cercyon littoralis Gyllenhal* X C. analis Paykull+ X X X C. haemorrhoidalis Fabricius+ X C. praetextatus Say X C. terminatus Marsham+ X Cercyon sp. X Staphylinidae Aleocharinae spp. X Carpelimus obesus Keisenwetter+ X C. cf.bilineatus Keisenwetter+ X Carpelimus sp. X X Oxytelus sculptus Gravenhorst+ X X Anotylus insignitus Gravenhorst X A. rugosus Fabricius§ X Quedius mesomelinus Marsham+ X X X Gyrohypnus fracticornis O.F. Müller+ X Neohypnus obscurus Erichson X X Neohypnus sp. X X Creophilus maxillosus villosus Gravenhorst X X Philonthus politus Linnaeus+ X X P. validus Casey X Trogidae Trox scaber Linnaeus* X Scarabaeidae Aegialia sp. X Aphodius bicolor Mulsant (syn Aphodius fi metarius Linnaeus)+ X Calamosternus (syn Aphodius) granarius Linnaeus+ X Ataenius spretulus Haldeman X Onthophagus pennsylvanicus Harold X Xyloryctes jamaicensis Drury X Byrrhidae Cytilus alternatus Say X Elmidae Optioservus ovalis LeConte X Stenelmis sp. X Dermestidae Dermestes lardarius Linnaeus+ (larder beetle) X Bostrichidae Amphicerus bicaudatus Say (apple twig borer) X Anobiidae Ptinus fur Linnaeus+ (white marked spider beetle) X X Tipnus unicolor Piller et Mitterpacher+ X Priobium sericeum Say X Trogossitidae Tenebroides mauritanicus Linnaeus+ X Nitidulidae Carpophilus hemipterus Linnaeus+ X Omosita colon Linnaeus+ X Monotomidae Monotoma picipes Herbst+ X 2011 A. Bain and G. King 113 microns. All samples were sorted under low-power binocular microscopes in the laboratory, and the recovered insect remains were mounted on micropaleontology cards to facilitate their identifi cation. The heads, pronota, and elytra (or fore-wings) of the recovered beetle remains were examined, as they often possess characters which allow identifi cation to the genus and, at times, species level. Identifi cations were undertaken at the Réné Martineau Insectarium at the Canadian Forestry Services Centre in Québec City as well as at the Eastern Cereals and Oilseeds Research Centre (ECORC) at Agriculture Canada in Ottawa. The coleopteran remains in this report are presented in Table 1, respecting changes to North American nomenclature during the last decade and are listed taxonomically according to Arnett and Thomas (2000), Arnett et al. (2002), and Gordon and Skelley (2007). Results The following sections provide a general description of the three faunal assemblages based on presence/ absence data. Specifi c context data and species composition of these fauna are discussed elsewhere (Bain 1998, Bain and Prévost 2010). The individual numbers of each species are not key to this discussion, as the goal of this paper is an overview of the role of Northeastern colonial ports in accommodating the arrival of Old World species. Ferryland, Newfoundland Ferryland was a successful cod-fishing community located on Newfoundland’s Avalon Peninsula. A local population resided year round with their fishing fleets, and also welcomed visiting fishing fleets during the summer season. Archaeobotanical studies suggest that the local population ate a large variety of locally grown fruits and seeds (Bain and Prévost 2010, Prévost and Bain 2007). They also consumed abundant wild game including seals and caribou, which they harvested alongside their introduced faunal provisions of beef, caprines, and pork (Hodgetts 2006). Six samples were studied from the Area C privy, a stone structure built into the seawall, which allowed it to be fl ushed by the daily tides (Gaulton 1997:86–87). Despite its careful engineering, a Table 1, continued. Ferryland Boston Québec City 1621–1673 1675–1740 1675–1699 c. 1700–1725 Species latrine latrine beach beach Silvanidae Oryzaephilus surinamensis Linnaeus+ (saw-toothed grain beetle) X O. mercator Fauvel+ or surinamensis Linnaeus+ X Uleiota debilis LeConte X Laemophloeidae Laemophloeus sp. X X Cryptophagidae Cryptophagus sp. (fungus beetle) X X Endomychidae Mycetaea subterranea Marsham+ (handsome fungus beetle) X X Coccinellidae Chilcorus stigma Say X Latridiidae Latridius minutus group Linnaeus+ (minute fungus beetle) X X X Tenebrionidae Gnatocerus cornutus Fabricius+ X Bruchidae Bruchus pisorum Linnaeus+ (pea weevil) X X Chrysomelidae Phyllotreta striolata Fabricius+ (striped fl ea beetle) X Curculionidae Dryophthorus americanus Bedel X Anthonomus signatus Say (strawberry bud weevil) X X Sitophilus granarius Linnaeus+ (granary wweevil) X X X S. oryzae Linnaeus+ (rice weevil) X Pelenomus fuliginosus Dietz X Hylesinus aculeatus Say X Polygraphus rufi pennis Kirby (four-eyed spruce bark beetle) X Orthotomicus caelatus Eichhoff X X Dryocoetes sp. X Xyleborus affi nis Eichoff X Pseudopityophthorus minutissimus Zimmermann X Pityophthorus sp. X Gnathotrichus materiarius Fitch X Monarthum mali Fitch X 114 Journal of the North Atlantic Special Volume 1 substantial deposit of material accumulated within the privy opening, resulting in a wealth of ecofacts and artifacts (Fig. 2). After 1673, it appears to have been used to deposit manure from the adjacent stable, to which it was connected by a covered drain (Gaulton 1997:86). The sediment samples discussed here chronicle the use of the privy from the 1620s to 1673, and the recovered beetle fauna represents insects from the local environment which may have accidentally fallen into the privy or been washed in, as well as those which were incidentally deposited into the privy with refuse (see also Bain and Prévost 2010, Prévost and Bain 2007). In the Ferryland samples, ground beetles (Carabidae), one species of water scavenger (Hydrophilidae), bark beetles (Scolytidae), and fungus beetles (Endomychidae) provide insight into the local environment. The ground beetles are all Holarctic in distribution, meaning they are found in northern continents around the world. They are also wideranging predators which normally feed on insects such as maggots. Pterostichus adstrictus prefers open landscapes with dry to moderately moist soil and, at times, may be found on cultivated ground (Lindroth 1966:487), while Bembidion petrosum is found on bare sand often mixed with stones on seashores (Lindroth 1963b:334). One of the most widely spread circumpolar ground beetles is Dicheirotrichus cognatus, living in open or thinly wooded places, usually on dry, sandy moraines with sparse mossy vegetation, and is commonly found on the coastal zones of Newfoundland and Labrador (Lindroth 1968:876). The hydrophilid beetle Cercyon littoralis is found on the Atlantic coasts of North America and Europe, living on beaches under decomposing seaweed and under driftwood and other detritus (Hansen 1987, Larsson and Gígja 1959, Smetana 1988). Two bark beetles were identifi ed in this fauna: Orthotomicus caelatus is a species native to North America and is found on species of pine, spruce, or larch and often attacks stumps, limbs, and branches of dying trees, as well as slash (Wood 1982:664), while Polygraphus rufi pennis attacks recently broken or cut spruce and white pine trees (Wood 1982:389). The recovery of the endemic scolytids, or bark beetles, suggests the use of wood at the site. Cut wood had multiple uses in fi shing and domestic settings, and the bark beetles suggest weakened or cut wood. This small fauna portrays the local environments found at Ferryland, as they suggest a sparsely vegetated coastal environment, with sandy moraines, some cultivated lands and nearby beaches with detritus. As the local coastal environment was cleared for settlement construction, many of these species would have been able to occupy microhabitats within the urban environment that mirrored their natural disturbed-land preferences. Disturbed-land species, endemic or introduced, would have theoretically had a competitive ecological advantage over autochthonous woodland species, which would have been temporarily displaced as the landscape underwent anthropogenic transformations. Members of the families Staphylinidae (rove beetles) and other Hydrophilidae may be found in contexts that contain excrement, compost, or other rotting organic remains. Quedius mesomelinus is often found near settled areas near outbuildings, barns, and other farm buildings (Smetana 1971:78), although it has also been collected in woodlands in eastern Canada (Makja and Smetana 2007), and in the nests of small mammals in Europe (Coiffait 1978). The hydrophilid Cercyon analis is found in all manner of rotting organic matter, dung, decaying plant debris, and compost piles, primarily in wet conditions in North America, and the Palaearctic region (Koch 1989, Smetana 1978). The pea and granary weevils suggest the presence of infested stores and their resulting products. These may have been disposed of as infested stored goods or arrived in the privy in the form of cess or human waste. All six privy samples contained bruchids, and as Bruchus pisorum (pea weevil) is the only member of this genus found in Newfoundland (Bousquet Figure 2. Excavation of the Area C Privy at Ferryland. (Photo courtesy of James A. Tuck and the Colony of Avalon Foundation). 2011 A. Bain and G. King 115 1991:301), it is very likely that all bruchid fragments belong to this species. This insect is a serious pest of fi eld or garden peas (Campbell et al. 1989:26). Letters from Ferryland indicate seemingly abundant pea cultivation (Pope 2004:10, 14), and the importation of peas to Ferryland likely helped to establish B. pisorum in Newfoundland, as it not part of the indigenous fauna. These weevils would have been transported within the stored peas, where the adults overwinter (Campbell et al. 1989:27). They then emerge in the fi eld, attacking young plants, thereby sustaining the cycle of infestation. Several species, which include Sitophilus granarius (granary weevil; Fig. 3) and Oryzaephilus surinamensis (saw-toothed grain beetle) indicate the presence of cereal grains or grain products such as fl our or bread. Sitophilus granarius is considered one of the world’s most destructive pests of stored grain (Campbell et al. 1989:224). This is a very hardy species, as both adults and larvae are able to overwinter in unheated storage buildings even in Canadian winters (Campbell et al. 1989:225). Recent accounts estimate insect-induced losses as ranging from 5% in wheat to 40% in other stored products in areas of the world in which insecticides are not employed or “industrial” integrated storage control is not practiced (McFarlane 1989, Payne 2002, Tyler and Boxall 1984). At Ferryland, the granary weevil was present in all samples studied. For those living at Ferryland, this pest fauna would likely have been a nuisance that was not unfamiliar as it would have been a part of English daily life. Indeed, archaeological records indicate its presence in Britain as early as the 1st century AD, when it likely arrived with supplies for the Roman military with a possible re-introduction of the species during the Norman Conquest in the 11th century (King 2010). The saw-toothed grain beetle Oryzaephilus surinamensis is a secondary grain pest, which is unable to exploit sound, dry kernels, but often appears in numbers after attack by other pests (Campbell et al. 1989:159–160), such as the granary weevil. It is also an extremely common pest of many kinds of foodstuffs, often infesting dried fruits and packaged foods (Campbell et al. 1989:159, Halstead 1993). Other species address the storage conditions housing these grains. Members of the families Cryptophagidae and Latridiidae generally feed on molds, fungal spores, and decaying vegetation (Campbell et al. 1989). Synanthropic cryptophagids generally indicate poor storage conditions that promote excessive growth of mold (Campbell et al 1989: 147), while the latridiid fauna, a family of exclusive fungal feeders, also indicates a moist and moldy environment (Bousquet 1990:129). The introduced Mycetaea subterranea (syn. M. hirta) (handsome fungus beetle), of the family Endomychidae, is, as its name implies, a fungus feeder which has been found in a wide variety of synanthropic settings including cellars, barns, and houses. However, it has also been collected from decaying trees and ants’ nests (Bousquet 1990:126, Horion 1961). Two spider beetles were recovered. Tipnus unicolor is strongly synanthropic and can be found in cereal products, as well as in many other damp environments, such as in wet wood or decaying litter or other organics (Osborne 1983:459), while Ptinus fur (white-marked spider beetle) lives in granaries, warehouses, and houses, where it feeds on grains and fl our. However, this species is considered polyphagous and is also known to feed on dried and decaying animal, fi sh, and vegetable matter (Campbell et al. 1989:332; Follwell 1952:61; King, in press; Osborne 1981:268). The deposition of meat into the privy is also indicated by the presence of Creophilus maxillosus (hairy rove beetle), a sometime predator of fl y and beetle larvae, although this species is also known to feed on fresh or partly decomposed meat and old bones (Campbell et al. 1989:380, Hinton 1945). In the privy, it may have been feeding on fl y larvae, on meat, or on fi sh. Osborne (1983) demonstrated that insect fragments could successfully pass through the human dietary tract without damage. It is highly probable that the grain and pea pests entered the latrines in this manner. They were likely incorporated into low quality bread or stew and then into waste. The infesting weevils, the fungus beetles, and the spider beetles may have all been living in the homes of the local settlers. More likely, the cryptophagids, latri- Figure 3. Preserved granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius) head and pronotum from the 1620s level in the Ferryland privy (Photo courtesy of the Environmental Archaeology Laboratory, Université Laval). 116 Journal of the North Atlantic Special Volume 1 visioned to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the early 17th century. Amongst the many pest species were pea weevils, the granary weevil, the saw-toothed grain beetle, and spider beetles. Phyllotreta striolata (striped fl ea beetle), known to attack cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage and turnips, was also identifi ed (Bain and LeSage 1998). Nicrophorus investigator is a carrion feeder (Anderson and Peck 1985), while Creophilus maxillosus, Trox scaber, Dermestes lardarius, and Omosita colon are all occasional carrion feeders (Hinton 1945, Osborne 1983, Vaurie 1955). Dermestes lardarius is a household pest found on a wide variety of products including bacon, ham, dried fi sh, and cheeses (Kingsolver 1991), and its larvae have been known to attack and kill chicks and ducklings (Peacock 1993). While a common infester of dried carrion, T. scaber also attacks hides, skins, and fl eece (Koch 1989). The presence of the adventive ground beetle Bembidion tetracolum suggests disturbed ground with some organic remains around or in the privy (Lindroth 1963b:331–332, 1985), while the presence of fruit trees is indicated by Amphicerus bicaudatus (apple twig borer) (Fisher 1950). Several species reveal the types of wood in use locally, such as oak, suggested by Pseudopityophthorus minutissimus (Bright 1976), and chestnut, indicated by the scarab beetle Xyloryctes jamaicensis, which is often taken beneath chestnut bark (Ritcher 1966). While the identifi ed beetle fauna bears witness to impressive number of introduced species that were present at the site, this assemblage also reveals details about daily life of household members in colonial Boston and suggests storage conditions, while also detailing the local urban environment in and around the privy. Îlot Hunt site, Quebec City Îlot Hunt is located in the Lower Town of Quebec City, the historic port, business, and banking center of the city. This area was cramped between the river and the cliff leading to Upper Town. The narrow strip of land along the riverside was eventually extended out into the St. Lawrence, as reclaiming land from the river was the only solution to overcrowding (Simoneau 2003). Charles Aubert de la Chesnaye, one of New France’s most enterprising merchants, was granterd two Lower Town water lots in 1687, and the site was rapidly transformed and expanded out into the river over the following two centuries. De la Chesnaye built a coffer-like frame around the lots in 1688 to combat the effects of high tides and to allow small boats to remain within the frame for offl oading merchandise (Fig. 4). In 1699, he built a stone wall or wharf, sheathed in timbers behind both water lots to counter erosion (Fig. 5) (Cloutier 2009, Rouleau 2009:232–5). A large stone defensive diids, endomychids, and the spider beetles represent hay or straw that was introduced into the privies in an effort to depurate the deposits. Globally, the samples refl ect a typical English diet at the time of peas and bread, complemented by meat and, not surprisingly, some fi sh. The inhabitants of Ferryland were clearly subjected to the ravages of insect pests on their pea and fl our stocks, which may have been stored in rather damp conditions. Cross Street Back Lot site, Boston The Cross Street Back Lot site in Boston was home of the widow Katherine Nanny Naylor, who, to the misfortune of those around her, but happily for archaeologists and historians, was involved in a number of lawsuits which left a rich documentary history connected with her, revealing details about her daily life in Boston around the turn of the 18th century. From deeds, probate inventories, and other historic documents, we know that she lived on Ann Street, was married twice and had eight children with her first husband, only two of whom lived past childhood. While she was widowed by her first husband, Robert Nanny, she successfully sued her second husband and father of two more children, Robert Naylor, for divorce (Cook 1998, Cook and Balicki 1996). The family privy was located in the backyard of their home on Ann Street, an early street along the waterfront of Boston Harbor, where wharves were constructed into the Great Cove (Boston Harbor) before 1700 (Cheek 1998). The privy yielded a wealth of information. Pollen grains, seeds, bones, insects, fabric, and shoes were all the subject of specialist studies along with material culture analyses (Cheek 1998). Over a thousand individual beetles were identified from these samples, including 24 adventive species (Bain 1998), which represent a third of the taxa identified. Similar to the Ferryland privy, most of the recorded members of the Staphylinidae and Hydrophilidae families detail a privy environment with rotting organic matter, such as composting domestic wastes as would be expected, or floor sweepings. Several staphylinid and hydrophilid species may also be found in dung, which was a likely pabulum for Oxytelus sculptus, Carpelimus obesus and Philonthus politus (Hall et al. 1983) as well as for the scarab beetles, including the introduced Calamosternus granarius (Gordon 1983, Landin 1961), formerly Aphodius granarius. Most species from the families Staphylinidae, Hydrophilidae, and Scarabaeidiae identified in this fauna were introduced to this region, crossing the Atlantic hidden in and amongst food stores, animal fodder, packing materials and ships’ ballast brought over by colonists. Sailer (1983) posits that C. granarius was introduced when cows were pro2011 A. Bain and G. King 117 battery, the First Dauphine Battery, was built on the site between 1707 and 1709, partly using de la Chesnaye’s wall as well as that of his neighbor, Jean Gobin. The samples discussed from the Îlot Hunt site include deposits taken from the beach levels which pre-date the 1699 wharf construction, and from an organic deposit formed in the fi rst quarter of the 18th century directly on the shoreline. Beach samples: 1675– 1699. These samples were taken from a layer of orange-colored sand containing large amounts of organic matter including branches, bark, and wood chips. This level was noted elsewhere on the Îlot Hunt site and on other excavations focusing on Figure 4. A c. AD 1695 view of Quebec City, with a red oval indicating Charles Aubert de la Chesnaye’s property with its enclosure. (Vue de Québec, avant 1700, anonyme, National Archives of Canada BK/340). Figure 5. View of the walls on the de la Chesnaye and Gobin properties constructed around 1699 and later transformed into the Dauphine Battery. (Image courtesy of the Service des communications, Ville de Québec). 118 Journal of the North Atlantic Special Volume 1 1700–1725. As previously stated, the de la Chesnaye wharf was transformed into a defensive Battery in 1707–1709, referred to as the First Dauphine Battery. This deposit appears to also have formed directly on the beach front, the shoreline of the St. Lawrence River. Lots of stones and sand made up the sample matrix which also contained wood, bones, bark, fabric, and leather scraps. Bembidion scopulinum, taken at watersides with sterile soils or little to no vegetation, was again found in this sample, as was Bembidion musicola, which is, conversely, found near water with sedges along the edges, and is easy to collect during fl ooding (Lindroth 1963b:388). The hydrophilids Hydrochus sp. and Helophorus frosti also indicate aquatic habitats (Smetana 1988:19). The riffl e beetle Optioservus ovalis is found on stream edges, on clear fresh water with a strong current over a gravel substrate, or amongst rocks covered with moss in clear water, while Stenelmis from the same family (Elmidae) is often found in cool, rapid streams (Arnett et al. 2002:117–118). The lady bug Chilocorus stigma is found in a wide variety of environments, some of which include sandy substrates, and around many types of trees (White 1983:235). The scarab beetle Aegialia sp. also implies that the deposit accumulated on a sandy substrate, as all members of this genus are found in sandy settings along rivers and lakes (Ratcliffe and Paulsen 2008:141). Felled or weakened ash trees are represented by Hylesinus aculeatus (eastern ash bark beetle; Campbell et al. 1989:368), whereas Monarthrum mali is commonly found on maples, elm, birch, beech, oak, and linden (Bright 1976:188, Wood 1982:1235). Similar to the other insect faunas in this study is the presence of numerous members from the families Staphylinidae and Hydrophilidae, representing organic remains on the beach front, likely the result of domestic trash disposal. These species include Quedius mesomelinus, Neohypnus sp., and Carpelimus sp. Calamosternus granarius was also recovered, and although often associated with the dung of domesticated herbivores, particularly cow dung, it is also known to feed on carrion and decaying vegetation (Ratcliffe and Paulsen 2008:178). Moss in this environment is indicated by Cytilus alternatus, a member of the Byrrhidae (Arnett et al. 2002:114). Stored products such as cereals are represented by Sitophilus granarius (granary weevil) as well as a member of the Latridius minutus group. While the L. minutus group of insects exploits damp environments, they are, along with the granary weevil, introduced and are thought to represent the presence of stored products in Canada (Campbell et al. 1989), although in European contexts they are primarily the historic Quebec City waterfront. Artifacts used to confi rm the late 17th-century date include French Saintonge earthenware, Beauvais and Normandy stoneware fragments, fragments of Bellarmine pottery, and 17th-century Dutch smoking pipes (Simoneau 2003:28). Artifacts such as gun fl ints, fi sh hooks and line, knife handles, barrel fragments, slate tiles, hardware, bones with butchery marks, bricks, French bricks, and the remains of at least 34 leather shoes represented by over 500 fragments were found as well. According to Simoneau (2003:29), this site is defi nitively a beach level, though one that includes domestic, workshop, and construction wastes, and had been affected by the tides. Two species of ground beetles tell us about the waterfront. Bembidion scopulinum lives on riversides generally clear of vegetation (Lindroth 1963b:343), while another Bembidion may be the species versicolor or mimus. Both species are often found together, close to water or puddles and always on soils containing organic materials, even if the soils are sandy, clayey, or made of turf (Lindroth 1963b:378–380). Other beetle families indicate that the environment around this deposit was rich in decaying organic remains, perhaps as a result of domestic waste disposal, corroborating Cloutier’s (2009) interpretations. These insect species include the members of the Staphylinidae and Hydrophilidae, which generally live in all sorts of decaying organic material. The staphylinid Carpelimus cf. bilineatus is common in wet compost as well as along the sandy muddy banks of fl ood zones (Koch 1989), while the hydrophilid Cercyon analis also prefers damp, decomposing habitats (Smetana 1988:165). Gyrohypnus fracticornis was present too and may indicate a habitat containing foul compost or dung; however, the species has also been noted in sweet compost, like straw, and fl ood debris (Koch 1989). All three of these species were introduced to the region. Numerous insects of the families Endomychidae, Latridiidae, and Anobiidae (Mycetaea subterranea, Latridius minutus, and Ptinus sp., respectively) live on mold and fungi associated with stored products such as cereals (Bousquet 1990) as well as moldy wood, hay, and straw (Koch 1989). The presence of cut and stacked pine is indicated by remains of the weevil Dryophthorus americanus, found on stumps, under pine bark, and around wood piles (Blatchely and Leng 1916). It appears then that these beach samples represent the Lower Town during the French regime and this small fauna revealed a beach front littered with organic wastes and construction debris and perhaps the remains of stored products. Beach level in front of the Dauphine Battery c. 2011 A. Bain and G. King 119 1950, 1967; Lindroth 1954, 1955, 1957, 1963a; Klimaszewski et al. 2010). Sailer (1983) commented that many introduced species likely arrived sooner than previously thought, only they simply went unnoticed or were not worthy of mention, as they were simply part of the expected fauna or had no economic signifi cance in people’s daily lives. Other species, such the pea weevil, were specifi cally mentioned as people tracked its route of infestation in the 17th century (Russell 1982). This documented record is to be expected as it is a very serious pest of fi eld peas. The specifi cs of their life cycle would have made them diffi cult to eliminate, and they may have been particularly problematic in the English colonies with a diet that typically included a lot of peas. The granary weevils exhibit a similar behavior in regards to their oviposition in cereal kernels, which has likely contributed to the success of their infestation and dispersal in the past (see King 2010). The three sites examined here were chosen as it was hoped they would, given their proximity to the Atlantic shoreline and St. Lawrence River, represent faunas that were biased towards a representation of the ecological shift experienced through the historic period with the arrival of fi shers and other settlers. The resulting faunas do indeed confi rm that the European insect faunas arrived early and in important numbers. The privy site of Boston is a startling example, which in a single feature documents the presence of 24 species of adventive insects in the early 18th century. After the remaining local forests were cleared away to make room for settlement, new urban environments and their insect assemblages of indoor or household fauna related to grains stores, animal fodder and bedding, fl oor sweepings, food stores, and other domestic wastes quickly took hold (Hall and Kenward 1990). The ships coming out to the New World, from an entomological perspective, mirrored these domestic environments as they contained all the essential elements of colonial life, including seeds, hay, domesticated mammals, food stores, packing materials, and furniture (see Buckland 1988, Buckland et al. 1995, Sadler 1991). For example, the white-marked spider beetle was fi rst recorded in the United States in 1869, though it is known to thrive on any number of stored products, including an entirely fi sh-based diet (Campbell et al. 1989:332). Such an opportunistic species would have easily been able to survive the trans-Atlantic crossing and to thrive on shores, like at Ferryland, where fi sh processing took place. In the three faunal assemblages examined here, the introduced biota— including the pea weevil, the granary weevil, and the majority of the adventives species represented in Table 1—largely belong to this synanthropic environment group and likely travelled to the New considered synanthropic mold feeders (Buckland and Buckland 2006). Anthonomus signatus (strawberry bud weevil) indicates local wild berries. This weevil can cause serious economic injury to strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries (Campbell et al. 1989:165), and in this context, the weevil was likely associated with waste deposits, as the active littoral zone would not encourage the growth of these berry species. Fortuitously, written sources discuss the creation of this deposit. In 16 April 1710, an ordinance stated that all citizens of the Lower Town should “de porter ou faire voiturer toutes leurs ordures, vidanges et démolitions dans l’emplacement de feu sieur Aubert de la Chesnaye dont on a tiré la terre pour faire des batteries”. In other words, garbage was to be hauled or carried to the property of de la Chesnaye, where soil was removed to construct the defensive batteries (Saucier 1958:55). We likely have evidence then of the intentional creation of land through waste disposal. Not surprisingly, the deposit is a mixture of domestic trash mixed amongst natural shoreline deposits of branches and beach fl otsam. The beetles portray a riverside setting with little vegetation, and the water appears to have been relatively clean, likely due to the cleansing effect of the high tides. The substrate appears to have been primarily sandy, with clay mixed in. The bark beetles are perhaps present as the result of construction nearby, and we have clear evidence of the disposal of domestic wastes at the river’s edge. Interestingly, while slightly later in date, the Dauphine Battery samples represented a fairly indigenous fauna, particularly in regards to the ground beetles, hydrophilids, and riffle beetles, in comparison to the 1675–1699 samples. However, European species were present in both contexts, representing the creation of proto-urban faunas in the New World. Discussion Ecological, climatic, and environmental transformations are often studied from the perspective of a single discipline or specialization. However, environmental archaeological studies on colonial period sites allows for the analyses of multiples lines of data as seen in the present project. Entomologists are keenly aware that many species of Coleoptera were transported to the New World well before people started collecting beetles, and especially in the 19th century. Species composition of early insect collections refl ects a time interval of two hundred years or more after some initial introductions, and much speculation about the dates, causes, and routes of entry to the New World has focussed on the distribution of Coleoptera to Atlantic Canada (Brown 1940, 120 Journal of the North Atlantic Special Volume 1 The introduction dates of many Old World species recorded by archaeoentomological studies make a signifi cant contribution to the fi elds of natural history in general and entomology in particular. When comparing the introduction dates generated from insects from archaeological sediments with suggested introduction dates published in entomological literature, the archaeoentomological data indicates that some species were introduced two to three hundred years earlier than previously thought, and clearly outline the rapidity and intensity of this colonial biological transfer. Conclusion Ports and waterside settlings in colonial North America played a critical role in facilitating the Europeanization of the New World fl ora and fauna. While the privies of the Ferryland and Cross Street Back Lot sites clearly show the high proportion of introduced species by the late 17th century, they are primarily European domestic faunas, likely common to households of this time period in both the Old and New Worlds. Similarly, the autochthonous fauna from both sites appear to indicate early human activities along a coastal environment: deforestation and land clearance resulting in the rough, sandy ground common in an urbanizing landscape. The two faunas formed on the St. Lawrence River shoreline at the Îlot Hunt site tell a different story, as they reveal a privileged snapshot of the transforming shoreline. These studies are important from a historical social perspective, elucidating details about daily life and social and economic practices and local environments of the colonial world, but also for their value as natural history studies. These fragments tell the fascinating story of a long-term biological transfer that is still ongoing today. Acknowledgments First round of thanks to Beatrix Arendt and George Hambrecht for their invitation to publish this paper and their patience. Several entomologists from the Canadian National Collection of Insects in Ottawa, ON, Canada, archaeological colleagues from Timelines, Inc., John Milner Associates, Memorial University, the Ville de Quebec, and students from Université Laval helped us to gather, process, and at times, identify the insect remains discussed here—thanks to you all! Warm thanks are also extended to Christopher Majka, David Smith, Harry Kenward, and to an anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments on earlier drafts of this paper. Literature Cited Anderson, R.S., and S.B. Peck. 1985. The carrion beetles of Canada and Alaska (Coleoptera: Silphidae and Agyrtidae). The Insects and Arachnids of Canada 13. Biosystematics Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada. World in microhabitats that were mimicked on the ships and reconstructed in the colonies which were, from a faunal and fl oral point of view, European towns in New World settings. Three of the beetle species identified in these assemblages perhaps represent the practice of ballasting. These species include the ground beetle Bembidion tetracolum, and two hydrophilids, Cercyon analis and C. littoralis. Cercyon littoralis, which has an European archaeological record dating to Iron Age sites in Scotland (Roper 1999), inhabits rotting algae, driftwood, and other waste (Smetana 1978:63) and its current distribution is classified as amphi-Atlantic (living on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean). Some authors suggest that this current distribution is the direct result of ballast dumping on the beaches of the New World (Buckland et al. 1995:233), and ballasting has also been proposed as one of the primary means of transport for ground beetles (see discussions in Buckland 1981; Buckland and Sadler 1990; Buckland et al. 1995; Lindroth 1957, 1963a; Klimaszewski et al. 2010; Sadler 1991). Ships’ ballast took many forms and included sand, turf, rubbish, lead, stones, bricks, and other building materials (Lindroth 1957). The soil taken on as ballast near the ports of southwestern England clearly contributed to the insect fauna of the New World. Transport through ballast might apply to C. analis, which is found in many kinds of rotting organic matter, on windows and walls of farm buildings, and in wet habitats, near water, under leaves and in wet moss (Smetana 1988:165). When turf was transported as ballast, it could have easily housed both these hydrophilids. However, as C. analis has been found in all types of rotting organic remains (Carrott and Kenward 2001), ballasting was perhaps not its only means of introduction. The introduced ground beetle Bembidion tetracolum may also be part of the ballast fauna, as it is a relatively common ground beetle found in cultivated land, pastures, gardens, and refuse piles near human habitats (Larochelle and Larivière 2003, Lindroth 1963b:331–332).These three species easily inhabited the coastal or riverside towns in similar ecological niches to those in which they are found in the Palaearctic region. 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