Mid-Late Holocene Vegetational History and Land-use Dynamics in County Monaghan, Northeastern Ireland–the Palynological Record of Lough Muckno
Carlos Chique1,*, Karen Molloy1, and Aaron P. Potito1
1Palaeoenvironmental Research Unit, School of Geography and Archaeology, National University of Ireland–Galway, Galway, Ireland. *Corresponding author.
Journal of the North Atlantic, No. 32 (2017)
Abstract
We conducted high-resolution palynological analysis on a sediment core obtained from Lough Muckno, County Monaghan, Ireland. The results presented represent the first paleoecological account of Mid-Late Holocene vegetational change and land-use dynamics in the study region. Human activity and agriculture is first recorded during the Early Neolithic (ca. 3870–3500 B.C.). After a period of undiscernible human activity of ~900 years, farming resumes during the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2600 B.C.). Henceforth, human presence on the landscape is constant with fluctuating levels of intensity. During the Bronze Age, anthropogenic activity is most pronounced during ca. 2000–1750 B.C. and ca. 1500–1300 B.C. followed by a phase of reduced intensity in the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1000–650 B.C.). Farming activity increases during the Iron Age and is disrupted with the onset of a period of rapid woodland regeneration from ca. 200 B.C. to A.D. 200. During the prehistorical period agriculture has a strong focus on pastoral grazing with a limited arable component. An upsurge in agricultural activity is recorded in the historical period from ca. A.D. 400 in which a mixed agricultural economy placing more emphasis on cereal-crop cultivation is adopted. Arable farming attains its maximum levels ca. A.D. 990–1140. Evidence of farming disruptions in the pollen record may reflect of a period of local “conflict” during the Viking Age/Medieval period (ca. A.D. 800–1190). We explore the characterizing features of the pollen assemblage of this large lake system and its use in reconstructing past cultural landscape change.
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Mid-Late Holocene Vegetational History and Land-use Dynamics in
County Monaghan, Northeastern Ireland–the Palynological Record of
Lough Muckno
Carlos Chique1,*, Karen Molloy1, and Aaron P. Potito1
Abstract - We conducted high-resolution palynological analysis on a sediment core obtained from Lough Muckno, County
Monaghan, Ireland. The results presented represent the first paleoecological account of Mid-Late Holocene vegetational
change and land-use dynamics in the study region. Human activity and agriculture is first recorded during the Early Neolithic
(ca. 3870–3500 B.C.). After a period of undiscernible human activity of ~900 years, farming resumes during the Early
Bronze Age (ca. 2600 B.C.). Henceforth, human presence on the landscape is constant with fluctuating levels of intensity.
During the Bronze Age, anthropogenic activity is most pronounced during ca. 2000–1750 B.C. and ca. 1500–1300 B.C.
followed by a phase of reduced intensity in the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1000–650 B.C.). Farming activity increases during the
Iron Age and is disrupted with the onset of a period of rapid woodland regeneration from ca. 200 B.C. to A.D. 200. During
the prehistorical period agriculture has a strong focus on pastoral grazing with a limited arable component. An upsurge in
agricultural activity is recorded in the historical period from ca. A.D. 400 in which a mixed agricultural economy placing
more emphasis on cereal-crop cultivation is adopted. Arable farming attains its maximum levels ca. A.D. 990–1140. Evidence
of farming disruptions in the pollen record may reflect of a period of local “conflict” during the Viking Age/Medieval
period (ca. A.D. 800–1190). We explore the characterizing features of the pollen assemblage of this large lake system and
its use in reconstructing past cultural landscape change.
1Palaeoenvironmental Research Unit, School of Geography and Archaeology, National University of Ireland–Galway, Galway,
Ireland. *Corresponding author - c.chique1@nuigalway.ie.
Introduction
Pollen-analytical investigations have played a
major role in the development of vegetation history
and landscape reconstruction in Ireland. A significant
number of pollen diagrams are now available
from the island (Mitchell et al. 2013), with several
focusing on Mid-Late Holocene environments (viz.
Walker et al. 2012), which has allowed for attempts
at identifying changes in vegetation structure and
land-use dynamics during different cultural periods
(e.g., Hall 2000, O’Connell and Molloy 2001,
Plunkett 2009). However, a limitation of the Irish
palynological record lies in its uneven geographical
distribution precluding a uniform representation of
landscape change across the island.
The Irish Pollen Site Database (IPOL 2013) categorizes
County Monaghan as one of the least studied
areas in Ireland from a palynological perspective
(cf. Mitchell et al. 2013). To date, a total number of 3
pollen datasets with only 1 radiocarbon (14C) date are
available from the county (Coope et al. 1979, Mitchell
1951, Vaughan et al. 2004). These investigations
mostly relate to pre-/Early Holocene environments
(pre-6250 B.C.), with no profiles available spanning
the Late Holocene. While the number of pollen
diagrams in Ireland as a whole is high, there are still
few high-resolution investigations focusing on different
cultural periods (e.g., Ghilardi and O’Connell
2013; Molloy and O’Connell 1991, 2004).
This study aims to address a clear gap in the
state of knowledge and expand the spatial extent
of the Irish palynological record by implementing
high-resolution pollen analysis on a sediment core
obtained from Lough Muckno, County Monaghan.
The objective is to provide a meticulous account
of Mid–Late Holocene landscape change with no
precedent in an area still unexplored in palynological
terms. We attempted to critically evaluate human
impacts on vegetation structure and describe the
development of the local agricultural component
through pollen-inferred land-use dynamics. The regional
setting, inclusive of Monaghan and adjoining
counties, has traditionally drawn limited archaeological
interest, leading to an underrepresentation
of archaeological records relative to other parts
of Ireland (Ó Drisceoil et al. 2014:13). Accordingly,
the current investigation also aims to provide
a palynological background of relevance for past
and future regional archaeological research. We
took an innovative approach to Irish palynological
reconstructions with the application of high pollen
counts in the sedimentary record of a system with a
large surface area. Such an endeavor is expected to
produce an account of vegetational change at a considerable
spatial scale (local and regional) due to the
projected pollen source area of the lake, a function
of its large deposition basin (Sugita 2007; Hellman
et al. 2008). Pollen reconstructions from large lakes
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32:1–24
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
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rarely feature in Irish palynology, which is invariably
concerned with change at the local level. The
location of the study site within the inter-drumlin
belt provides insights into vegetation dynamics in
a landscape with distinctive topographical and edaphological
properties (Aalen et al. 1997), which can
be extrapolated to palynological reconstructions in
similar settings.
Taking into account the novel nature of the results
presented, we emphasize drawing comparisons
with pertinent palynological data
(Fig. 1; Table 1). Pollen diagrams
from 4 sites located in close proximity
to L. Muckno that comprise
the regional extent of palynological
data are considered in detail
(Table 4). We expected the collation
of regional pollen data to (i) allow
for the comparison and potential
integration of the high-resolution
profile of L. Muckno with neighboring
(more local) pollen records,
and (ii) explore land-use dynamics
at a finer spatial scale in this part of
Ireland while drawing contrast with
patterns inferred elsewhere in the
island.
Local and Regional Setting
Lough Muckno (Figs. 1, 2) is a
large inter-drumlin lake (3.57 km2;
86 m a.s.l.) composed of 3 main
basins joined by narrow channels,
located next to the modern town
of Castleblayney. The lake has an
average depth of 5.4 m with an
estimated shoreline length of 26.3
km, and is fed by 6 main fluvial
inputs draining an extensive catchment
area (109.08 km2). The geology
of the area is composed of
Silurian quartzite overlain by poorly
drained glacial till soils. The
post-glacial landscape provides an
undulating topographical setting
manifested in frequent oval-shaped
features (drumlins) often merging
with lake margins (Fig. 2b).
Figure 2a provides an account
of archeological features within
the area under consideration. Historical
records (i.e., post-A.D. 400)
predominate with ringforts (raths),
enclosed farmsteads characteristic
of Early Historic open landscapes (ca. A.D. 600–
850; Kerr 2009), being the most prevalent (n =1 13).
The remains of the Early Christian (ca. A.D. 700)
Muckno Monastery are located on the northern shore
of the lake. A structure (fortification) northwest of
the coring location was suggested to be part of an
expansion of local monastic activity following ca.
A.D. 1100 (Ó Dufaigh 2011). Distinctive prehistoric
features include a Bronze Age lake settlement (Cullyhanna)
northeast of the lake consisting of an oak
Figure 1. Map of Ireland illustrating the location of Lough Muckno and the study
area (□) relative to pollen sites referred to in the text. The approximate extent of
the inter-drumlin belt is shown with a grey background. The location of relevant
archaeological features outside the range of Figure 2a are shown with a “▲”
symbol and include Iron Age sites Aghareagh West and The Dorsey. Detailed
information for each pollen site is given in Table 1. Sites considered part of the
“regional” record are denoted with an “×” symbol: (1a) Redbog II; (1b) Essexford
Lough; (2) Whiterath Bog; (3) Loughnashade. Other pollen sites are shown
with a “●” symbol and include the following: (4) Garry Bog; (5) Sluggan Bog;
(6) Caheraphuca Lough; (7a) Caherkine Lough; (7b) Mooghaun Lough; (8a)
Barrees; (8b) Loch Beag; (9) Mount Gabriel; (10) Glen West Bog; (11) Abbeyknockmoy
Bog; (12) An Loch Mór; (13) Ballinphuil Bog; (14) Church Lough; (15)
Lough Sheeauns; (16) Clonfert Bog; (17) Clonenagh Bog; (18) Moyreen Bog;
(19) Corlea Bog; (20) Belderrig; (21) Céide Fields; (22) Owenduff Bog; (23)
Emlagh Bog; (24) Mongan Bog; (25) Kilbegly; (26) Lough Cooney; (27) Lough
Dargan; (28) Loughmeenaghan; (29) Templevanny Lough; (30) Derryville Bog;
(31) Ballynagilly Bog; (32) Lough Catherine; (33) Claraghmore Bog; (34a) Killimady
Lough; (34b) Weir’s Lough; (35) Scragh Bog.
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C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
palisade and hut structure (Hodges 1958), with onsite
radiocarbon returns of 3475 ± 75 BP (ca. 1800
B.C.) and 3305 ± 50 BP (ca. 1580 B.C.) (Smith et
al. 1973). A cluster of 5 fulachta fia (burnt-mounds)
were uncovered on a former island southwest of
the coring location (Fig. 2b). Fulacht fia are predominantly
Bronze Age features, with 14C evidence
suggesting 2 main periods of proliferation in Ireland
during ca. 1700–1300 B.C. and ca. 1000–800 B.C.
(Ó Néill 2003).
Methods
Fieldwork
We used a Usinger piston corer (see Mingram
et al. 2007) to recover 2 parallel sediment cores
(LM-I, II), both ~9.5 m long from the deepest part
of the western basin of the lake at a water depth of
15 m (Fig. 2b). The data presented pertains to depths
284–744 cm of core LM-II.
Table 1. Details of pollen sites shown in Figure 1. The deposit type indicates the nature of the profile subject to palynological analysis. A
indicates raised bog and B is used for blanket bog.
Map Deposit Coordinates Dating
Site label type (lat/long) County methods Reference
Redbog II 1a BogA 53°58'28", 6°37'22" Louth 14C, tephra Weir (1995)
Essexford 1b Lake 53°58'6", 6°38'44" Louth Cross-matching Weir (1995)
Whiterath Bog 2 Lake 53°55'37", 6°25'24" Louth Cross-matching Weir (1995)
Loughnashade 3 Lake 54°21'00", 6°41'26" Armagh 14C, cross-matching Weir (1993)
Garry Bog 4 BogA 55°13'27", 6°28'13" Antrim Tephra Plunkett (2009)
Sluggan Bog 5 BogA 54°44'12", 6°14'47" Antrim Tephra Plunkett (2009)
Caheraphuca 6 Lake 52°55'50", 8°55'1" Clare 14C Molloy and O’Connell (2011,
2012)
Caherkine 7a Lake 52°47'13", 8°51'21" Clare 14C O’Connell et al. (2001)
Mooghaun 7b Lake 52°47'4", 8°52'45" Clare 14C Molloy (2005)
Barrees 8a BogB 51°42'30", 9°55'10" Cork 14C Overland and O’Connell (2008)
Beag 8b Lake 51°42'4", 9°55'32" Cork 14C Overland and O’Connell (2008)
Mount Gabriel 9 BogB 51°33'18", 9°33'48" Cork 14C Mighall et al. (2008)
Glen West Bog 10 BogA 54°24'50", 8°2'22" Fermanagh Tephra Plunkett (2009)
Abbeyknockmoy Bog 11 BogA 53°26'35", 8°45'22" Galway 14C, tephra Lomas-Clarke and Barber (2004)
An Loch Mór 12 Lake 53°3'28", 9°30'36" Galway 14C, tephra; varves Molloy and O’Connell (2004,
2007)
Ballinphuill Bog 13 BogA 53°16'16", 8°30'5" Galway 14C Molloy and O’Connell (2016)
Church 14 Lake 53°37'25", 10°12'45" Galway 14C O’Connell and Ní Ghráinne (1994)
Sheeauns 15 Lake 53°33'21", 10° 4'39" Galway 14C Molloy and O’Connell (1987,
1991)
Clonfert Bog 16 BogA 53°15'8", 8°3'12" Galway Tephra Hall (2005)
Clonenagh Bog 17 BogA 52°59'57", 7°25'56" Laois Tephra Hall (2005)
Moyreen Bog 18 BogB 52°31'58", 9°10'54" Limerick Tephra Plunkett (2009)
Corlea Bog 19 BogA 53°37'18", 7°52'2" Longford 14C, dendrochronology Caseldine and Hatton (1996)
Belderrig 20 BogB 54°18'8", 9°34'21" Mayo 14C Verrill and Tipping (2010)
Céide Fields 21 BogB 54°18'15", 9°27'32" Mayo 14C Molloy and O’Connell (1995)
Oweduff Bog 22 BogB 53°59'50", 9°39'43" Mayo Tephra Plunkett (2009)
Emlagh Bog 23 BogB 53°47'7", 6°45'12" Meath 14C, tephra Newman et al. (2007)
Mongan Bog 24 BogA 53°19'59", 7°55'52" Offaly Tephra Hall (2005)
Kilbegly 25 Mire 53°17'42", 8°12'10" Roscommon 14C Overland and O’Connell (2011)
Cooney 26 Lake 54°12'0", 8°32'14" Sligo 14C O’Connell et al. (2014)
Dargan 27 Lake 54°12'10", 8°25'13" Sligo 14C Ghilardi and O’Connell (2013)
Loughmeenaghan 28 Lake 54° 5'35", 8°23'31" Sligo 14C Stolze et al. (2012)
Templevanny 29 Lake 54°2'5", 8°24'18" Sligo 14C Stolze et al. (2013)
Derryville Bog 30 BogA 52°46'1", 7°40'53" Tipperary Tephra Hall (2005)
Ballynagilly Bog 31 BogB 54°40'46", 6°51'28" Tyrone 14C Pilcher and Smith (1979)
Catherine 32 Lake 54°41'54", 7°26'15" Tyrone 14C Hirons and Edwards (1986)
Claraghmore Bog 33 BogA 54°37'53", 7°26'48" Tyrone 14C wiggle-matching, Plunkett (2009)
tephra
Killimady 34a Lake 54°29'12", 6°47'54" Tyrone 14C Hirons (1984), Hirons and
Edwards (1986)
Weir's 34b Lake 54°29'12", 6°47'54" Tyrone 14C Hirons (1984), Hirons and
Edwards (1986)
Scragh Bog 35 Lake 53°35'36", 7°20'59" Westmeath Cross-matching O’Connell (1980, 1991)
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
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Figure 2. (A) Lough Muckno at the catchment scale including simplified hydrology and archaeological setting. The legend indicates the time-period classification assigned to
each archaeological record in the area. The annotation is used to differentiate among archaeological records including specific sites mentioned within the text. Unclassified
Neolithic tombs are shown unannotated with a “▲” symbol. Individual ringforts (including univallate, bivallate, and cashel-type) are also illustrated unannotated using the
“●” symbol. The large multivallate Lisleitrim Fort is shown separately. No further discrimination is made among the remainder of records with an “Uncertain (prehistoric)”
classification, which are shown unannotated with a “*” symbol. (B) Western basin of L. Muckno showing coring location (depth in m), topography (a.s.l. in m), and local
archaeological records.
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Stratigraphy, chronology, and loss-on-ignition
Visual description and use of photography were
our primary means of documenting the stratigraphy
of the sediment core. To attach a chronology to the
profile, 8 sediment samples were selected for AMS
14C dating (between 160-708 cm) based on significant
changes in the pollen record. Sediment samples
consisted of 2-cm–thick slices sieved through
a 125-μm–mesh sieve. We examined the material
retained using a Leica MZ125 stereomicroscope,
and submitted terrestrial macrofossils (fruits, plant
remains and charcoal) for AMS 14C dating. The
upper 2-m section of the sediment core was dated
using 210Pb methods, which are presented elsewhere
(Chique et al., in review). Sediment samples (2
cm3) were taken at the same depths as pollen samples
(i.e., every 4 cm from 284 cm to 744 cm) to
calculate loss-on-ignition (LOI %). Samples were
dried for 24 hours at 105 °C and ashed for 4 hours
at 550 °C (Heiri et al. 2001).
Pollen analysis
The 116 samples used for pollen analysis in this
study consisted of 1 cm3 of sediment taken every 4
cm from 284 cm to 744 cm in depth. Sample preparation
followed standard methods implemented at the
Palaeoenvironmental Research Unit (PRU). Lycopodium
clavatum spore tablets (2 tablets, containing a
total of 41,696 spores) supplied by the Department of
Geology, University of Lund (batch no. 1031) were
added to the samples prior to laboratory processing
to facilitate calculation of pollen concentration.
The samples were deflocculated with KOH, sieved
through a 100-μm–mesh sieve, treated with 60% HF
solution followed by acetolysis, sieved through a
5-μm–mesh in an ultra-sonicator in order to remove
remaining particles/debris, mounted in glycerol, and
examined for pollen using a Leica DM 4000-B microscope
fitted with x10 oculars with a x40 objective
for routine counting and phase-contrast x63 and x100
(oil immersion) for detailed analysis of pollen grains.
Pollen and spore identification and nomenclature follow
Moore et al. (1991) and Beug (2004). We regularly
consulted the pollen reference collection at the
PRU. Cereal-type pollen were identified following
the guidelines provided by Beug (2004), but with a
minimum-size criterion of 40 μm instead of 37 μm for
inclusion of grains into the cereal-type category, and
differentiation of Secale-type (rye) pollen. Based on
the length of the longest axis, we grouped cereal-type
pollen into 40–44 μm, 45–49 μm, and >50 μm categories
(excluding Secale-type pollen). Identification of
Isoetaceae microspores is based on size–frequency
curves by Birks (1973). Routine counting observations
and measurement (longest diameter parallel to
furrow excluding perine) of 200 microspores divided
equally among 10 samples suggest dominance of
Isoetes echinospora (average spore size = 27.4 μm).
Non-pollen palynomorphs (NPP) counted include
algal remains, Pinus stomata and (micro-) charcoal
(>37 μm). A minimum of 1000 total terrestrial pollen
(TTP) and spores were counted in each sample.
Pollen percentage and concentration calculations
as well as diagrams were generated using CountPol
ver 3.3 (obtained from I. Feeser, University of Kiel,
Kiel, Germany). Percentage values are based on TTP,
with the pollen sum (PS) excluding pollen and spores
from aquatic taxa and NPPs. Main pollen categories
comprise arboreal pollen (AP) and non-arboreal pollen
(NAP). We divided the latter into distinct ecological
groups including tall shrubs, grassland/pastoral
(NAPp), arable/disturbed, ferns, and bog/heath.
Results
Stratigraphy
The section of the sediment core under consideration
(284–744 cm) is uniformly composed of postglacial
fine dark brown lake mud intercalated with
lighter-colored banding at random intervals.
14C dating and age–depth modelling
Available 14C dates are given in Table 2. The
uppermost dates LMII-1 and LMII-2 were not incorporated
into the age–depth model on the grounds of
14C reversal. However, the age–depth model is constrained
at the top (190 cm) by the lowermost date
(-88 BP ± 130) of the 210Pb chronology in the upper
2 m of LM-II, which enables an age-depth chronology
to be established in parts of the profile where 14C
dates reversed. The age–depth model (Fig. 3) was
established using Bacon v. 2.2 Bayesian age–depth
modelling software (Blaauw and Christen 2011)
utilizing IntCal13 (Reimer et al. 2013) embedded
on R as an interface. The output of the dating model
provides an age determination for every centimeter
depth of the sediment core. Prior values assigned
to the Markov-chain Monte Carlo iterations are as
follows: accumulation shape = 1.5, accumulation
mean = 10 years/cm, memory strength = 4, memory
mean = 0.7. Modification of the pre-set prior valueaccumulation
mean was based on the software estimate
recommendation. The 14C date at 708 cm (ca.
3920 BC) represents the lowermost age determination
from LM-II included in the age–depth model.
Considering the lack of palynological indicators of
human activity in that section of the core, we derived
the chronology for samples below this depth (i.e.,
712–744 cm) by assuming a constant sedimentation
rate. In addition to Figure 3, supplemental data is
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
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provided to highlight the age range associated with
age–depth modelling corresponding to the historical
period and calendar year annotated events (see
Supplementary Table 1, available online at http://
www.eaglehill.us/JONAonline/suppl-files/J061316-
Chique-s1, and, for BioOne subscribers, at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1656/J061316.s1).
Pollen and additional data
Establishment of pollen assemblage zones
(PAZs) is based on changes in percentage/concentration
pollen data while zone age determination is
based on the output of Bacon age–depth modelling.
The percentage contribution towards TTP of various
pollen ecological groups is presented in a composite
diagram in Figure 4a. Individual percentage pollen
curves are presented in Figures 4b and 5a, and selected
concentration curves are given in Figure 5b.
LOI (%) and dry-mass sediment accumulation rate
are shown in Figures 5c and 5d, respectively. Calculation
of sediment accumulation rate is based on the
working age–depth model inclusive of (accepted)
14C dates and the bottom-most 210Pb date (Fig. 3).
The percentage contribution (averaged) of terrestrial
pollen ecological groups in each PAZ is presented
in a pie chart format in Figure 6. Cereal-type and
Secale-type pollen statistics are shown in Figure 7.
Table 3 includes a summary of the most relevant
palynological features of each PAZ while providing
information on contemporary cultural/historical
periods. The division of the prehistoric period (ca.
4400 B.C.–A.D. 400) is based on Waddell (2010)
Table 2. 14C dates from core LM-II. Sample depths are given according to upper depth of section taken (maximum 2 cm thick). Age range
is quoted in calibrated years B.C./A.D. (negative values indica te B.C.).
Sample Depth Age range
14C lab. code ID (cm) 14C (BP) (1σ, 68.3%) (2σ, 95.4%) Material description Comments
UBA-26860 LMII-1 160 756 ± 31 1247–1281 1221–1285 Charcoal, wood fragments, moss Reversal, rejected
stems, Betula fruit
UBA-26861 LMII-2 301 1494 ± 36 542–611 532–489 Charcoal, wood fragments, moss stems Reversal, rejected
UBA-30293 LMII-7 320 1108 ± 34 940–980 869–1017 Leaf and wood fragments, unidentified Accepted
bud scale, Alnus fruit
UBA-29462 LMII-5a 372 1472 ± 30 565–621 545–643 Leaf and wood fragments, Betula fruit Accepted
UBA-29463 LMII-6 420 2348 ± 46 -489 to -379 -545 to -357 Wood fragments, Betula fruit and bract Accepted
UBA-26862 LMII-3 492 3119 ± 32 -1431 to -1385 -1451 to -1287 Wood fragments, moss stems, charred Accepted
plant remains
UBA-26863 LMII-4 628 4237 ± 37 -2904 to -2867 -916 to -2851 Wood fragments, Betula remains Accepted
UBA-26864 LMII-5 708 5174 ± 40 -3998 to -3957 -4051 to -3936 Charcoal, wood fragments, moss Accepted
stems, Betula bud scale
Figure 3. Age–depth model
based on Bayesian modelling
of 14C dates in conjunction with
210Pb data from core LM-II. 14C
results (uncalibrated) are also
shown including the rejected
date at 301 cm denoted by *.
Black bands indicate probability
distribution for calibrated
14C dates. The red curve follows
the “best” model based on
the weighted mean age for each
depth, with parallel grey lines
indicating the 95% confidence
interval.
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C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
Figure 4. Percentage pollen diagram plotted to depth with matching age-scale in calibrated years B.C./A.D. (rounded to the
nearest 10). Ecological groups are differentiated using color coding. Zones/subzones are indicated on the right hand side.
(A) Composite percentage pollen diagram. (B) Selected pollen percentage curves and pollen sum (x1000 grains). Scales
used are indicated at the base of the individual curves, with normal curves presented at x1 and hatched curves exaggerated
(x2, x5, x10). Dots indicate very low values. The following abbreviations are used for rare occurrences. Tall Shrubs: P =
Prunus; S = Sambucus; C = Crataegus. NAPp: V = Valeriana officinalis. Arable/Disturbed: H = Cannabis/Humulus-type.
NPPs: PS = Pinus stomata.
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
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Figure 5. [Caption on following page.]
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C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
Figure 5 (previous page). (A) Percentage pollen curves for taxa with low but relevant occurrence (conventions follow those
in Fig. 4) (B) Selected pollen concentration curves including total pollen, AP, and NAP. (C) Calculated loss-on-ignition (%).
(D) Dry-mass sediment-accumulation rate. Note that values from depths 712–744 cm are calculated based on the assumption
of a constant sedimentation rate. 14C dates (uncalibrated BP) are given according to sample depth towards the right hand
side. The rejected date (LMII-2) is shown with a hollow symbol and accepted dates with black fill symbol. Core sections
(each 2 m long) are given in the left hand side of the diagram. Cultural/historical periods are shown on the right hand side
and are color coded according to the overall degree of inferred human activity: blue = undiscernible or limited, light green
= low–moderate, orange = moderate–high, and red = high.
Table 3. Summary of palynological features of profile LM-II. The Chronology (14C) column is based on the results of age-depth modelling
from core LM-II. The Period/Age Range column provides individual cultural/historical periods and their corresponding timeframe. All dates
are given in calibrated years B.C./A.D. A indicates the period is based on Waddell (2010), Bfollows O’Brien (2012) and CO’Sullivan (1998).
Spectra
PAZs (cm) Chronology (14C) Period/age range Main features and subzones
9 332–284 A.D. 800 –1190 Viking Age (A.D. 800–1100)C – Initial recovery of AP followed by reductions; further
Medieval (A.D. 1100–1350)C expansion of NAP; Cereal-type curve disrupted.
Subzone 9c: Cereal-type curve disrupted.
Subzone 9b: Corylus, Quercus, Betula, and Fraxinus decline;
Poaceae and P. lanceolata expand; Cereal-type curve expands.
Subzone 9a: Increase in Corylus and Fraxinus; Slight
contraction of P. lanceolata; Cereal-type curve disrupted.
8 384–336 A.D. 220–800 Late Iron AgeA –Early Historic Reduction in AP; NAP expansion.
(A.D. 400–800)C Subzone 8b: Corylus, Quercus, and Alnus decline; Poaceae,
P. lanceolata, and Pteridium expand; Increase in Pediastrum,
I. echinospora, and micro-charcoal; Cereal-type curve expands.
Subzone 8a: Corylus, Betula, and Fraxinus decline; Poaceae and
P. lanceolata expand.
7 408–388 220 B.C.–A.D. 220 Late Iron AgeA AP recovers; low NAP.
6 436–412 650–220 B.C. Early Iron Age (600 B.C.– Decline in Quercus, Ulmus, and Corylus; Poaceae, P. lanceolata,
A.D. 400)A and Pteridium expand; Increase in Pediastrum, I. echinospora,
and micro-charcoal.
5 500–440 1490–650 B.C. Middle Bronze Age (1600–1100 Initial decline in AP and NAP expansion with gradual reversal of
B.C.)A –Late Bronze Age (1000– trend.
650 B.C.)A Subzone 5c: AP recovers; P. lanceolata declines further.
Subzone 5b: Reductions in Fraxinus and Alnus; NAP contract
and stabilize; Increase in Pteridium.
Subzone 5a: Quercus, Corylus, and Fraxinus decline; Poaceae,
P. lanceolata,and Pteridium expand; Increase in Pediastrum
and micro-charcoal.
4 600–504 2590–1490 B.C. Early Bronze Age (2500–1600 AP fluctuates along with NAP expansion in three consecutive
B.C.)A; inclusive of Chalcolithic phases.
(2500–2000 B.C.)B Subzone 4d: AP tends to stabilize; NAP decrease from preceding
subzone and remains constant.
Subzone 4c: Decrease in Quercus, Ulmus, Fraxinus; Poaceae
and P. lanceolata increase.
Subzone 4b: AP fluctuates; Poaceae and P. lanceolata expand
Subzone 4a: Decline in Quercus, Ulmus, Corylus, Fraxinus and
Alnus; Poaceae and P. lanceolata expand; Cereal-type pollen
forms curve.
3 672–604 3490–2590 B.C. Middle - Late Neolithic (3100– High AP; NAP very low.
2500 B.C.)A Subzone 3c: Third Elm Decline.
Subzone 3b: Second Elm Decline; Fraxinus begins to expand.
Subzone 3a: High Corylus, Quercus, Alnus, and Ulmus recovers.
2 708–676 3970–3490 B.C. Early Neolithic (4000–3600 B.C.)A AP declines; NAP increases for the first time.
–Middle Neolithic (3600–3100 Subzone 2c: Recovery in AP; NAP declines.
B.C.)A Subzone 2b: Decline in Quercus and Betula with Alnus
expanding at the end of subzone; Poaceae and P. lanceoloata
expand .
Subzone 2a: Elm Decline.
1 744–712 4400–3970 B.C. Mesolithic (8000–4000 B.C.)A High AP including Corylus, Ulmus, Quercus; NAP very low.
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
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General considerations
Based on theoretical guidelines (Sugita 2007),
the pollen record of a large system such as L. Muckno
can potentially reflect the averaged vegetation
composition of an area of ~104–105 km2. These
estimates relate to pollen from tree taxa (AP) characterized
by enhanced dispersal in contrast to pollen
from low-growing plants (NAP), which derive from
a much more localized area (Hellman et al. 2009).
NAPp and especially cereal-type pollen are expected
to be reflective of the vegetation structure on mineral
soils near the lake basin
(Broström et al. 2005, Sjögren
et al. 2015). In these terms, the
sedimentary record of L. Muckno
is expected to incorporate
regional to local pollen (Hellman
et al. 2008). Stream-bound
pollen from the catchment area
of the lake may be an important
contributor towards TTP (Sugita
2007).
In order to facilitate comparisons
with other sites, we
recalibrated 14C dates from other
pollen profiles (Table 1) using
the IntCal13 curve and Calib
ver. 7.1. All dates are referred
to in calibrated years B.C./A.D.
Some of the regional pollen
diagrams (Tables 1, 4) lack independent
dating, with the chronology
of Essexford Lough and
Whiterath Bog based on crosscorrelation
of pollen events with
the 14C chronology established
at Redbog II (Weir 1995). At
Loughnashade, a combination
of local 14C evidence and crosscorrelation
of events (based on
data by Hirons 1984) were used
to derive an age–depth chronology
(Weir 1993).
Pollen assemblage zones
(PAZs)
The main palynological
features summarised in Table 3
are described in more detail as
follows.
PAZ-1 (744–712 cm; ca.
4400–3970 B.C.). AP accounts
for 97% of TTP. Corylus is the
main contributor (41%–24%)
and O’Brien (2012), and the historic period (ca.
A.D. 400–1190) follows O’Sullivan (1998). We also
classified the data using informal periods in order
to better illustrate chronological trends in palynological
data, with the Iron Age (600 B.C.–A.D. 400)
subdivided into Early Iron Age (ca. 650–220 B.C.)
and Late Iron Age (ca. 220 B.C.–220 A.D.). Table
4 integrates main palynological features and landuse
dynamics inferred from regional pollen profiles
(Weir 1993, 1995).
Figure 6. Pie charts showing the percentage contribution of terrestrial pollen ecological
groups in Zones/Subzones 1–9.
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2017 No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
Figure 7. Cereal-type pollen statistics.
Mean size (bar column), maximum/
minimum size (dashed line),
and standard deviation (solid line)
for cereal-type grains is given for
each zone and, in the case of Zones
8–9, for each subzone. Bar data
labels xx/yy denote the amount of
cereal- and Secale-type recorded
in each zone, with xx indicating
cereal-type and yy Secale-type.
Zones 1 and 3 have no cereal-type
records. The dotted vertical line
indicates the minimum-size criterion
(40 μm) used for inclusion of
pollen grains into the cereal-type
category.
Table 4. Summary of land-use dynamics and palynological features inferred from regional profiles (Weir 1993, 1995). Arrow symbols (↓↑)
are used to indicate an increase (↑) or decrease (↓) in human activity at each site. The first column provides corresponding PAZs established
at Lough Muckno along with cultural/historical period and age-d epth chronology (14C) to facilitate comparisons.
PAZ, period, and
chronology (14C) Redbog II Essexford Lough Loughnashade Whiterath Bog
1. Pre-Neolithic landscape Elm Decline: 3980 B.C. N/A N/A N/A
(pre-3970 B.C.)
2. Early-Middle Neolithic Onset of activity at 3800 B.C. N/A N/A N/A
(3970–3490 B.C.)
3. Middle-Late Neolithic Subdued activity, Elm Subdued activity, N/A Subdued activity
(3490–2590 B.C.) Decline: 3230 and 2800 B.C Elm Decline: 2900 B.C.
4. Early Bronze Age ↑ pastoral farming from ↑ 2300 B.C. ↑ 1900 B.C. ↑ 2300 B.C.
(2590–1490 B.C.) 2300 B.C.
Arable component from
1600 B.C.
5. Middle–Late Bronze ↑ 1600–1400 B.C. and ↑ 1200 B.C. and ↑ 1400–1300 B.C. ↑ 1300 B.C.
Age (1490–650 B.C.) 1000–800 B.C. 1000 B.C. particularly arable
farming ↓ 1000–600
B.C.
6. Early Iron Age Subdued activity ↑ 600–200 B.C. ↑ 600–200 B.C. ↑ 400–200 B.C
(650–220 B.C.)
7. Late Iron Age Subdued activity and ↓ 200 B.C.–A.D. 25 ↓ 200 B.C.–A.D. 200 ↓ 200 B.C–A.D. 25
(220 B.C.–A.D. 220) ↑ A.D. 25–540 ↑ A.D. 25–540 ↑ A.D. 25–200
8. Late Iron Age –Early ↑ A.D. 25–540 ↑ A.D.25–540 and 700–800 ↑ A.D. 200–500 and N/A
Historic period ↓ and woodland separated by ↓ and 600–900 separated by
(A.D. 220–800) regeneration A.D. 540–850 woodland regeneration, ↓ and woodland
Secale introduction A.D. regeneration, Secale
500 introduction A.D. 400
9. Viking Age and ↑ 850–1000 Tendency towards ↑ with Tendency towards ↑ N/A
Medieval (A.D. 800–1190) ↓ in arable farming with ↓ in arable
A.D. 900–1000 farming A.D. 900–1050
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
12
and P. lanceolata increase to 6.7% and 1.6%, respectively,
in conjunction with additional NAPp.
Subzone 4c (552–528 cm; ca. 2060–1750 B.C.):
AP representation falls to 83%. This is accounted for
by a decrease in values of Quercus (19%), Ulmus
(1%) and Fraxinus (1%). Corylus (40%) and Betula
(7%) show higher representation. NAPp increases
again, primarily Poaceae (7%) and P. lanceolata
(3%).
Subzone 4d (524–504 cm; ca. 1750–1490 B.C.):
AP curves remain relatively stable. Poaceae and P.
lanceolata values contract to 4% and 0.7%, respectively.
The cereal-type curve is briefly interrupted.
PAZ-5 (500–440 cm; ca. 1490–650 B.C.)
Subzone 5a (500–488 cm; ca. 1490–1300
B.C.): AP falls from 90% to 69% with reductions in
Quercus (24% to 16%), Fraxinus (6% to 2%), and
Corylus (40% to 26%). Conversely, an increase in
Betula (6% to 12%) and Alnus (13% to 17%) values
is recorded. The expansion of NAP (31% of TTP) is
primarily accounted for by an increase in Poaceae
(3.7% to 15%) and P. lanceolata (1% to 4%). The
cereal-type pollen curve averages 0.2% for most
of PAZ-5. Pediastrum, I. echinospora, and microcharcoal
values increase in PAZ-5, in particular in
Subzone 5a.
Subzone 5b (484–468 cm; ca. 1300–1030 B.C.):
AP oscillates from 86% to 79% with reductions in
Fraxinus (2%), Betula (6%), and Alnus (20%), although
Corylus values increase (36%). Taxus forms
a curve continuing uninterrupted until PAZ-9b. Poaceae
and P. lanceolata curves contract to ~7.8% and
~1.3%, respectively.
Subzone 5c (464–440 cm; ca. 1030–650 B.C.):
Most AP curves remain stable. Values of Poaceae
(~6.5 %), P. lanceolata (~0.6%), and most NAPp indicators
tend to decrease. A disruption in the cerealtype
curve is recorded.
PAZ-6 (436 cm–412 cm; ca. 650–220 B.C.)
AP falls to 71% with a decrease in Quercus
(17% to 12%) Fraxinus (~7% to 1%), Corylus (36%
to 25%), and Alnus (21% to 15%). Betula values
increase from 6% to 10%. Higher NAPp values are
recorded with Poaceae increasing from 8% to 14%
and P. lanceolata peaking at 4%. Cereal-type pollen
is continuously recorded. Levels of Pediastrum,
Botryococcus, I. echinospora, and micro-charcoal
increase.
PAZ-7 (408–388 cm; ca. 220 B.C.–A.D. 220)
AP representation increases from 71% to 91%, accounted
for by Corylus (25% to 39%), Ulmus (1% to
followed by Quercus (27%–21%), Alnus (19%–15),
Ulmus (17%–11%), Betula (4%–8%), and Pinus
(4%–1%). NAP values are low. Aquatic indicators
and micro-charcoal are at low levels.
PAZ-2 (708–676 cm; ca. 3970–3490 B.C.).
Subzone 2a (708–704 cm; ca. 3970–3870 B.C.):
AP dominates (96% of TTP) with Ulmus values falling
from 13% to 5%. Micro-charcoal is at low levels
through Zone 2.
Subzone 2b (700–684 cm; ca. 3870–3600 B.C.):
AP representation falls to 79% with Ulmus declining
to 1%. Quercus and Betula values decrease from
29% to 13% and 8% to 4%, respectively. Alnus
values increase to 40%. NAP attains 21% with an
increase in Poaceae (11%) and Plantago lanceolata
(4%). Two cereal-type pollen grains are recorded
at 700 cm. Pediastrum, Botryococcus, and Isoetes
echinospora show increased representation.
Subzone 2c (680–676 cm; ca. 3600–3490 B.C.):
AP representation recovers to 97%; see in particular
Corylus (41%), Alnus (25%), Quercus (21%), and
Ulmus (5%). NAPp falls to 2% with Poaceae and
P. lanceolata curves contracting to 1.2% and 0.6%,
respectively.
PAZ-3 (672–604 cm; ca. 3490–2590 B.C.)
Subzone 3a (672–656 cm: ca. 3490–3220 B.C.):
AP dominates (98%–95%), and NAP values remain
low throughout Zone 3. Alnus values decline from
29% to 16%. A continuous Fraxinus curve (~0.4%)
is established.
Subzone 3b (652–636 cm; ca. 3220–2960 B.C.):
Ulmus values decline from 11% to 5% before recovering
to 12%. Fraxinus representation increases to
~1.1%. The first records of Taxus baccata are observed
at 644 cm.
Subzone 3c (632–604 cm; ca. 2960–2590 B.C.):
Ulmus values decline from 12% to 1% before recovering
to 6%. Fraxinus continues to increase, attaining
5%.
PAZ-4 (600–504 cm; ca. 2590–1490 B.C.)
Subzone 4a (600–592 cm; ca. 2590–2460 B.C.):
AP declines from 96% to 89% with reduced representation
of Quercus (38% to 31%), Ulmus (6% to
2%), Fraxinus (5% to 1%), and Alnus (21% to 13%).
Poaceae and P. lanceolata values peak to 5.3% and
2.7%, respectively. Cereal-type pollen is recorded
in Zone 4 at low levels (~0.1%). Small increases in
micro-charcoal follow closely the expansion of NAP
in all subzones.
Subzone 4b (588–556 cm; ca. 2460–2060 B.C.):
Slight fluctuations in most AP curves are recorded.
Alnus peaks at 26% before falling to ~19%. Poaceae
Journal of the North Atlantic
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C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
activity, this section mainly follows cultural/historical
periods (Table 3). These are in turn contained
within 3 broad headings: (i) pre-Neolithic landscape,
(ii) prehistoric vegetation and land-use dynamics,
and (iii) historic vegetation and land-use dynamics.
Pre-Neolithic landscape
Pre-elm decline woodland environment (PAZ-1)
(pre-3970 B.C.). The landscape is dominated by
mixed deciduous woodland; oak is the main tall-canopy
tree with lesser amounts of elm, pine, birch, and
alder likely to be prevalent on wetter soils. Hazel
represents the primary understory component. Ferns
are common within these woodlands (Polypodium
vulgare and Dryopteris-filix-mas-type curve; Figs..
4b, 5a). The very low NAPp values (~0.9%) suggest
open habitats were not present at this time, and
apart from the initiation of an Ilex curve at ca. 4080
B.C. (Fig. 4b), there is no evidence of pre-Neolithic
woodland instability (viz. O’Connell and Molloy
2001). While the presence of micro-charcoal can
potentially be linked to pre-Neolithic human activity
(Mighall et al. 2008, Warren et al. 2014), in view of
the lack of anthropogenic pollen indicators in this
section of the profile, a stronger argument can be
made for charcoal originating from natural sources.
Elm-decline (PAZ-2a) (ca. 3970–3870 B.C.). The
Mid-Holocene Elm Decline, a ubiquitous feature of
Irish pollen diagrams dated to the Early Neolithic, is
recorded in PAZ-2a with a decrease in Ulmus values
from 13% to 5% at ca. 3920 B.C. The Elm Decline as
recorded here does not appear to be linked with human
activity and precedes a Neolithic Landnam by
~50 years. A similar pattern is reported in different
parts of Ireland (cf. Ghilardi and O’Connell 2013,
Molloy and O’Connell 1987, Stolze et al. 2013).
Considering the lack of palynological indicators of
human activity at the onset of the event, it is assumed
that anthropogenic factors have limited relevance in
the sudden decline of elm. The hypothesis of an epidemic
disease caused by a fungal pathogen differentially
affecting elm (Clark and Edwards 2004) seems
valid in this context. However, it is also possible that
factors not discernible from the pollen record were
involved in the process. The spread of disease by
earlier and inconspicuous human disturbance of the
woodland environment (Warren et al. 2014), perhaps
undiscernible considering the expected low level of
activity and localized nature of NAP, is a distinct
possibility. The onset of the decline corresponds
with records from other locations, with a post-4000
B.C. start registered within the region (Table 4) and
at several other sites (O’Connell and Molloy 2001,
Parker et al. 2002, Whitehouse et al. 2014).
3%), Betula (8% to 15%), Fraxinus (4% to 7%), and
Taxus (0.6% to 1.4%). Quercus values fall from 17%
to 10% and then stabilize at ~15%, a trend supported
by concentration data. Alnus values oscillate between
13% and 20%. NAP is low with Poaceae and P. lanceolata
curves contracting from 13% to 5% and 3% to
0.1%, respectively. The cereal-type curve (~0.1%) is
disrupted. A decrease in the representation of aquatic
indicators and micro-charcoal is recorded.
PAZ-8 (384–336 cm; ca. A.D. 220–800)
Subzone 8a (384–376 cm; ca. A.D. 220–440):
AP falls from 90% to 74% with declining Corylus
(37% to 28%), Betula (12% to 5%), and Fraxinus
(5% to 1%) values. NAPp shows higher representation
with Poaceae and P. lanceolata values increasing
from 5.7% to 12.1% and 1% to 2%, respectively.
The cereal-type curve peaks briefly (0.5%) and then
contracts (~0.1%).
Subzone 8b (372–336 cm; ca. A.D. 440–800):
AP declines to 61%. Corylus (21%), Quercus (9%)
and Alnus (15%) are primarily affected. Poaceae and
P. lanceolata peak to 19% and 3%, respectively. Cereal-
type values increase (1.3%), with Secale pollen
recorded sporadically. Pediastrum, Botryococcus, I.
echinospora, Litorella uniflora, and micro-charcoal
show increased representation.
PAZ-9 (332–284; ca. A.D. 800–1190)
Subzone 9a (332–316 cm; ca. A.D. 800–960):
AP attains 79% with Corylus values increasing from
25% to 32% and Fraxinus from 1% to 4%. Poaceae
values remain at ~10%, P. lanceolata decreases
(2.3% to 1.1%), and additional NAPp is recorded.
Cereal-type values fluctuate from 0.6% to 0.1%, and
Secale pollen eventually becomes frequent. Microcharcoal
levels are high in Zone 9.
Subzone 9b (312–292 cm; ca. A.D. 960–1140):
AP declines to 59% with Corylus, Quercus, Betula,
and Fraxinus reaching lows of 23%, 8%, 5%, and
0.7%, respectively. Poaceae and P. lanceolata values
increase to 20% and 3.2%, respectively. NAPp attains
28% of TTP. Cereal-type records peak at 1.1%
concurrent with Secale values of 0.6%. Aquatic indicators
(Pediastrum, Botryococcus, I. echinospora,
and L. uniflora) have a high representation.
Subzone 9c (288–284 cm; ca. A.D. 1140–1190):
AP and NAP values remain stable, with the exception
of the cereal-type curve contracting to 0.4%.
Discussion
In order to facilitate a detailed chronological account
of vegetation change paralleled with human
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
14
tern is reported in other inter-drumlin sites (Hirons
and Edwards 1986) and at a Neolithic field system
located in a steep river valley in North Mayo (Verril
and Tipping 2010). Eventual woodland recovery
along with a decline in NAP in PAZ-2c reflects the
abandonment of land from ca. 3600–3490 B.C.
The pollen profile in closest proximity, Redbog II
(Table 4), also indicates commencement of Neolithic
activity following ca. 3800 B.C., with a comparable
chronology reported in other locations (Caseldine
and Hatton 1996, O’Connell 1991, O’Connell and
Molloy 2001, Stolze et al. 2013). The inferred period
of concentrated human activity at L. Muckno
(~270 years) may be considered brief (cf. ~700 years
of main Landnam phase; Ghilardi and O’Connell
2013), and in terms of intensity, either modest (cf.
Molloy and O’Connell 1987, 1995) or substantial
(cf. Mighall et al. 2008, Molloy and O’Connell
2012, Weir 1995), a factor that highlights geographical
variability in land-use patterns. The palynological
evidence from L. Muckno and elsewhere (Caseldine
and Hatton 1996; Ghilardi and O’Connell 2013;
Molloy and O’Connell 1987, 2016; O’Connell 1991;
O’Connell and Molloy 2001; Pilcher and Smith
1979; Stolze et al. 2012, 2013) suggests agricultural
activity is predominantly pastoral, with discreet evidence
of arable farming during the earliest stages of
the Early Neolithic. This interpretation is also supported
by archaeobotanical evidence (McClatchie
et al. 2014). In terms of archaeological records, the
prevalence of court tombs in the area (n = 9), considered
to be predominantly Early Neolithic features
(ca. 3700–3570 B.C.; Schulting et al. 2012), corresponds
well to the period of concentrated Neolithic
activity inferred from pollen data.
Middle–Late Neolithic (PAZ-3) (ca. 3490 - 2590
B.C.). High AP representation (~97% of TPP) in
PAZ-3 indicates the presence of a fully closed
woodland environment primarily dominated by
hazel, oak, and elm with conditions similar to the
pre-Elm Decline environment (PAZ-1) (Figs. 4a,
6). Open habitats are no longer present locally, and
human presence in the landscape is not discernible
from palynological evidence. These observations are
comparable to patterns at both a regional and wider
scale (Table 4; Caseldine and Hatton 1996; Molloy
and O’Connell 1991, 2016; O’Connell and Molloy
2001; Pilcher and Smith 1979; Stolze et al. 2013).
This period of reduced activity has been tentatively
attributed to a decline in population (O’Connell and
Molloy 2001) or climatic deterioration (Whitehouse
et al. 2014) at the Irish scale.
The consecutive reductions in Ulmus values in
PAZ-3 appear to be additional Elm Decline events.
Vegetation and land-use dynamics in the prehistorical
period
Early–Middle Neolithic (PAZs 2b-2c) (ca.
3970–3490 B.C.). The first definite evidence of human
activity is recorded in PAZ-2 spanning a period
of ~380 years, with activity concentrated during ca.
3870–3600 B.C. (PAZ-2b), followed by a phase of
declining activity ca. 3600–3490 B.C. (PAZ-2c).
Clearance of tall-canopy oak and birch is construed
from reduction in Quercus and Betula values.
Further reductions in Ulmus values may reflect a
combination of disease and woodland clearance affecting
elm. The stability of Pinus values (Fig. 4b)
indicates that pine is not affected by clearings, with
pine pollen possibly deriving from the wider region.
The brief peak in Corylus values in PAZ-2b is most
likely due to increased pollen production associated
with reductions in canopy-forming trees oak
and elm (Feeser and Dörfler 2014). The increase in
NAP values, in particular Poaceae, provide the first
indication of expansion of open areas, inclusive of a
species-rich pastoral component (see P. lanceolata,
Rumex-type, Ranunculus-type, and Liguliflorae;
Fig. 4b), suggesting the presence of areas dedicated
to pastoral grazing. Two cereal-type records indicate
small-scale arable farming during the earliest stages
of the Landnam phase (ca. 3810 B.C.). Overall,
woodland dominates the landscape, reaching its
minimum representation at ca. 3760 B.C. (Fig. 4a),
indicating the presence of small local openings.
Values of Isoetes, a palynological indicator of catchment
erosion (Vuorela 1980), in conjunction with
LOI % values (Fig. 5c), reflect increased catchment
disturbance and sediment in-wash into the lake. An
increase in nutrient inputs may be envisaged from
the higher representation of Botryococcus and Pediastrum.
The latter has no parallel until the Late
Bronze Age (PAZ-5) (see Pediastrum curve; Fig.
4b) and may indicate activity relatively close to the
coring location. As reported elsewhere (Ghilardi and
O’Connell 2013, Molloy and O’Connell 1987), fire
does not appear to have played a role in Neolithic
woodland clearance.
The substantial expansion of alder following the
main phase of woodland clearance at ca. 3600 B.C.
likely derives from a combination of the local interdrumlin
conditions and anthropogenic disturbance.
Reduced woodland cover would have facilitated increased
overland flow and gravitational soil erosion
into inter-drumlin hollows and steep lake margins.
In turn, this is expected to have led to higher soil
hydraulical saturation as well as soil stabilization,
ultimately resulting in the expansion of suitable alder
habitat (Bennett and Birks 1990). A similar patJournal
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Including the original collapse at ca. 3920 B.C.
(PAZ-2a), 3 distinct Elm Decline events are inferred
from the pollen record of L. Muckno, with the second
event recorded at ca. 3220 B.C. (PAZ-3b) and
the final event at ca. 2960 B.C. (PAZ-3c). Hereafter
Ulmus values do not recover to pre-Elm Decline levels
for the remainder of the pollen profile. Multiple
Elm Decline events have been reported in other locations
(Hirons and Edwards 1986, O’Connell 1980)
including a comparable chronology at Redbog II
(Table 4). Weir (1995) attributed Elm Decline events
at that site to human influence, but in the case of L.
Muckno the lack of anthropogenic indicators hints
at disease as the primary cause for all 3 Elm Decline
events.
The gradual expansion of Fraxinus marks a
change in woodland structure. Light-demanding ash,
previously present in the landscape as a frequent
but underrepresented taxon, expands in open areas
within woodlands (O’Connell and Molloy 2001). A
pine stomata recorded at 644 cm suggests local pine
presence (see Pinus curve; Fig. 4b), but its representation
in the landscape gradually declines from ca.
2850 B.C. onwards. The decline in Alnus values in
Zone 3 is likely a result of the inherent dynamism of
alder woodlands (Bennett and Birks 1990), in this
case due to the absence of catchment disturbance
facilitating the creation of suitable habitat for its
expansion.
Early Bronze Age (PAZ-4) (ca. 3490 - 2590 B.C.).
Human activity is constant but at fluctuating levels
of intensity during the Early Bronze Age. NAPp
representation suggest 3 episodes of increased agricultural
activity concentrated during ca. 2590–2460
B.C. (PAZ-4a), ca. 2330–2150 B.C. (PAZ-4b), and
ca. 1970–1750 B.C. (PAZ-4c).
Renewed catchment disturbance is recorded
from 2590 B.C. with small-scale clearance envisaged
from modest reductions in AP components and
expansion of Poaceae and P. lanceolata curves. Increased
representation of Cyperaceae and Salix (Fig.
4b) may provide an indication of openings along
lake fringes. The cereal-type curve suggests smallscale
cereal cultivation spanning most of the period
ca. 2590–1490 B.C following a period of ca. 1220
years (3810–2590 B.C.) with no pollen evidence of
arable farming in the vicinity of L. Muckno.
Stability in most AP curves suggest limited woodland
clearance in PAZ-4b, with NAPp indicating a
slight expansion in the extent of grassland/pastoral
areas along temporal spread of alder into wet areas.
A more intense phase of woodland clearance follows
in PAZ-4c with reductions in oak, elm, and ash.
AP representation falls to a minimum of 83% by ca.
1840 B.C. (Fig. 4a). Hazel and birch benefit from
modifications in woodland canopy structure and
slowly expand. The presence of a vegetation Mantel
layer primarily composed of rowan/whitebeam (see
Sorbus curve, and Prunus, Crataegus, and Sambucus
records; Fig. 4b) reflects openings in the woodland
environment and (possibly) grazing pressure on
woodland fringes (Ghilardi and O’Connell 2013).
Increased representation of additional components
of the woodland edge community, holly and ivy (Ilex
and Hedera curves; Fig. 4b), as well as a better expression
of ferns (P. vulgare and Filicales curve; Figs.
4b, 5a), emphasize woodland structure modifications.
Pteridium values peak during each of the episodes
of increased human activity (particularly in PAZ-4c;
Fig. 4b), reflecting bracken colonization of newly
opened areas. The establishment of a Filipendula
curve represents the presence of wet grassland patches.
Higher incidence of arable weeds in Zone 4 (Brassicaceae,
P. major/media, and Chenopodiaceae; Figs.
4b, 5a) may reflect disturbance within open habitats
possibly related to arable farming (Behre, 1981).
In PAZ-4d, apart from a brief decrease in Fraxinus
values which may imply further ash clearance,
AP curves remain relatively stable, with lower P.
lanceolata values suggesting contraction in the extent
of pastoral areas, and a disruption of the cereal
curve perhaps reflective of a brief lull in arable farming
during ca. 1710–1660 B.C. The pollen record
indicates that the economy in the Early Bronze Age
is still largely grassland-based with a minor but now
relatively permanent arable component. Overall, the
correspondence of small peaks in microscopic charcoal
with each episode of pronounced human activity
hints at an anthropogenic source, related to either
settlement and/or woodland clearance. Evidence
of oak clearance may derive from the settlement at
Cullyhanna (Fig. 2a), with 14C evidence (Smith et al.
1973) providing potential chronological correspondence
with the phase of increased human activity at
ca. 1800 B.C.
Regional palynological evidence (Table 4)
and additional Irish investigations (Ghilardi and
O’Connell 2013; Mighall et al. 2008; Molloy 2005;
Molloy and O’Connell 1991, 2004; O’Connell et al.
2014) also provide evidence of land-use intensification,
predominantly pastoral, but often with some
evidence of cereal-crop cultivation during the early
2nd millennium B.C.
Middle–Late Bronze Age (PAZ-5) (ca. 1490–650
B.C.). A substantial expansion in farming activity is
recorded during the Middle Bronze Age. This trend
is strongest during ca. 1490–1300 B.C. (PAZ-5a),
with intensity decreasing but still at a considerable
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
16
level ca. 1300–1030 B.C. (PAZ-5b). A period of
lower activity occurs during the Late Bronze Age ca.
1030–650 B.C. (PAZ-5c).
During PAZ-5a, tall-canopy oak and elm trees
are subject to a degree of removal; however, scrub
vegetation is the main target of clearances with
strong reductions in hazel and to a lesser extent
ash, facilitating increased birch flowering (see peak
in Betula; Fig. 4b). Higher values of Poaceae and
additional NAPp (P. lanceolata, Rumex-type, Ranunculus-
type, Filipendula) represent an expansion
of open grassland/pastoral habitats. The impact on
woodland cover at ca. 1400 B.C. (AP = 69%) is larger
than that recorded in the earlier part of the Bronze
Age at ca. 1840 B.C. (PAZ-4c) (Fig. 4a). Frequent
records of Osmunda (Fig. 5a) are suggestive of open
wet areas, and 2 phases of bracken expansion into
newly cleared areas are discernible (see Pteridium
curve; Fig. 4b): the first corresponds to the initial
phase of woodland clearance at ca. 1400 B.C. (PAZ-
5a), while the second occurs in conjunction with a
reduction in Fraxinus percentage and concentration
values at ca. 1080 B.C. (PAZ-5b). The latter could
be interpreted as indicative of exploitation of ash
for timber as there is no evidence for expansion of
anthropogenic indicators or for major changes in
woodland composition.
The gradual expansion of Alnus towards PAZ-5b
once again reflects the dynamism of alder woodlands
expanding onto wet soils. Hazel scrub expands, possibly
replacing oak and/or ash in areas previously
subject to clearance. The establishment of a slender
Taxus curve (Fig. 4b) suggests that yew benefits
from changes in woodland structure, but remains
a minor component of the woodlands. AP values
in PAZ-5c indicate stability in woodland structure,
with hazel scrub dominating the landscape and a
degree of elm regeneration. Decreased NAPp values
between ca. 1030–650 B.C. indicate further contraction
of pastoral/grassland habitats from.
Continuity of cereal-type records in PAZ-5 (see
also arable weeds; Figs. 4b, 5a) imply prevalence of
small-scale arable farming during the Middle–Late
Bronze Age, with a possible disruption in cereal cultivation
at ca. 700 B.C. In PAZ-5a, catchment disturbance,
increased soil erosion, and lake productivity
are reflected in micro-charcoal, I. echinospora, and
Pediastrum representation. Higher minerogenic inputs
are also evident at ca. 1400 B.C. (Fig. 5c). If the
local fulachta fia (Fig. 2) are associated with the construction
phase of 1700–1300 B.C. (Ó Néill 2003),
then an argument can be made for localized activity
that may be reflected in higher Pediastrum levels.
Regional evidence points to increased agricultural
activity during the Middle Bronze Age, including
frequent signs of cereal cultivation (particularly
post-1400 B.C.) (Table 4). Palynological data from
different parts of Ireland (e.g., Plunkett 2009),
including a number of profiles in close proximity
in the west (Molloy 2005; Molloy and O’Connell
2011, 2012; O’Connell et al. 2001), serve to highlight
the spatio-temporal variability in land-use
dynamics characterizing this period. However, a
widespread upsurge in agricultural activity corresponding
to the onset of the Late Bronze Age (ca.
1000 B.C.) (Ghilardi and O’Connell 2013; Molloy
and O’Connell 2004, 2016; O’Connell et al. 2014;
Overland and O’Connell 2008; Plunkett 2009), also
evident in most regional profiles (Table 4), is in
clear contrast with the low levels of human activity
recorded during ca. 1030–650 B.C. at L. Muckno
and perhaps Loughnashade (ca. 1000–600 B.C).
Early Iron Age (PAZ-6) (ca. 650–220 B.C.).
Increased human activity is indicated as woodland
clearance involving ash, oak, and to a lesser degree
elm. Hazel scrub, by this point a dominant component
in the context of woody vegetation, is subject to
pronounced clearance at ca. 300 B.C. The expansion
of birch corresponds to reductions in the tall-canopy
tree layer and diminished competition from hazel
scrub. High NAPp values indicate considerable expansion
of grasslands and especially pastoral habitats.
Concomitant bracken expansion (see Pteridium
curve; Fig. 4b) provides further evidence of open
areas. The inferred intensity of pastoral activity and
impact on woodland vegetation is comparable to
land-use dynamics in the Middle Bronze Age (PAZ-
5a) (Fig. 4a). Frequent records of cereal-type pollen
(see also Brassicaceae curve; Fig. 4b) suggest continuity
in cereal cultivation. Catchment disturbance
is again reflected in LOI % values (Fig. 5c), aquatic
indicators, and micro-charcoal.
Two linear earthwork features located southeast
of the lake (Fig. 2) may indicate Iron Age activity in
the wider area of the study site. Along with a number
of regional archaeological features (The Dorsey
and Aghareagh West; Fig. 1), it was suggested that
these comprised a series of Iron Age fortifications in
the north midlands (Davies 1955, Kane 1909, Lynn
2008, Walsh 1987), although recent interpretations
suggest alternative scenarios (see Ó Drisceoil et al.
2014). With the exception of Redbog II, regional
pollen evidence indicates a period of intensifying
farming activity (Table 4) often reported in different
parts of Ireland (Ghilardi and O’Connell 2013; Molloy
2005; Molloy and O’Connell 1991, 2004, 2012,
2016; Overland and O’Connell 2008; Plunkett 2009;
Pilcher and Smith 1979).
Journal of the North Atlantic
17
2017 No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
Late Iron Age (PAZ-7) (ca. 220 B.C.–A.D. 220).
Zone 7 represents the so-called Late Iron Age Lull
(LIAL), a period of subdued agricultural activity
during which widespread woodland regeneration
may have occurred across Ireland. Locally, this
phase dates from ca. 220 B.C. to A.D. 220, with
rapid woodland regeneration involving hazel, birch,
and ash, but also elm and yew at a slower rate. A
fall in Quercus values suggests decreased oak representation
in the landscape during ca. 150–70 B.C.
However, given the generalized contraction in NAP
during this period, local oak clearance is not envisaged.
A pollen “screening” effect provided by alder
woodlands, presumed to be predominant around
the lake, may provide an explanation for the underrepresentation
of oak pollen, a feature also reported
from other inter-drumlin settings (Hirons 1984).
The decline in Alnus representation at ca. 150 B.C.
is also unlikely to reflect alder clearance, and it is
difficult to explain a reduction in Alnus pollen influx
given the liekly prevalence of alder on wetter soils
around the lake. Competition from an expanding
ash population, a contemporary component of wet
woodlands present around the lake today (Foss and
Crushell 2012) may provide a viable explanation.
Expansion of woody taxa along wetter areas, involving
either alder and/or ash, may also be a factor
in the absence of Cyperaceae pollen (Fig 4b). Rapid
modifications in the organization or “regularity” of
the local to regional vegetation mosaic (Hellman et
al. 2009) seem to acount for the palynological features
noted above.
Woodland representation during the Late Iron
Age is at its maximum extent since the Early Bronze
Age (PAZ-4d) (Fig. 4a). Regeneration of the woodland
environment is also reflected in the higher representation
of holly (Ilex curve; Fig. 4b) benefiting
from the expansion of woodland fringes. The contraction
of NAPp points to a considerable reduction
of open habitats and loss of diversity (e.g., Urtica,
Fabaceae). The very low records of P. lanceolata
(0.1%) only have parallel in the Late Neolithic
(PAZ-3) ~2600 years earlier. Open areas dedicated
to pastoral grazing are negligible by the early 1st
century A.D. Cereal-type records indicate that arable
farming in the area ceased briefly at ca. 70 B.C.,
resuming shortly after at a small scale. The effects
of declining catchment activity are well represented
in the decreased sediment accumulation rate (Fig.
5d) (see also decline in micro-charcoal, Pediastrum,
Botryococcus, and I. echinospora; Fig. 4b).
Weir (1995) (see also Baillie 1993) argued for
a potential link between climatic deterioration and
population reduction occurring during 200 B.C.–
A.D. 200 in Ireland. More recently, Baillie and
Brown (2013) consider the possibility of an environmental
downturn at 44–42 B.C. leading to a collapse
in population in the ensuing centuries. From a
palynological perspective, a degree of chronological
variability concerning “features” comparable to the
LIAL is evident. In the west, they are often registered
during the early 1st millennium A.D. (Molloy
and O’Connell 2004, 2016; Lomas-Clarke and Barber
2004) and slightly later in the south (Overland
and O’Connell 2008). Dates tend to oscillate around
the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. in other locations
considered (Ghilardi and O’Connell 2013; Molloy
2005, Newman et al. 2007). This is in contrast with
the evidence available from L. Muckno and nearby
profiles (Table 4) where the LIAL is registered centuries
earlier than in the west and which suggest a
synchronous woodland regeneration phase in northeastern
Ireland. The variability observed throughout
Ireland is highlighted by modelling of 14C evidence
from several pollen profiles placing the onset of the
LIAL at various times within the window of 200
B.C.–A.D. 200 questioning the validity of a climatedriven
lull and supporting the role of cultural factors
(Coyle-McClung 2013).
Vegetation and land-use dynamics in the historical
period
Late Iron Age–Early Historic period (PAZ-8)
(ca. A.D. 220–800). A period of intense human
activity characterized by the unprecedented expansion
of open habitats and emphasis on cereal-crop
cultivation is reflected in PAZ-8. In Subzone 8a,
clearances involving hazel scrub, ash, and birch
and the concomitant expansion of grassland/pastoral
habitats (Fig. 4b) indicate renewed focus on
pastoral activity. Arable farming also experiences a
sudden and brief expansion at ca. A.D. 300. Continued
clearance involves oak at ca. A.D. 760 (PAZ-
8b) along with alder removal, which may point to
agricultural expansion onto marginal land. Elm
and yew representation in the landscape is minimal
from this point onwards. Deforestation reaches its
climax at ca. A.D. 700 with AP falling to its lowest
levels yet recorded (61%; Fig. 4a). The expansion
of open/pastoral habitats, inclusive of the re-establishment
of nutrient-rich areas (see Urtica values)
and wet grassland patches (see Filipendula and new
records of Valeriana officinalis; Fig. 4b) suggests
intense pastoral grazing. Sedges expand once more
along lake edges, and bracken colonization of open
areas is widespread (Fig. 4b).
From ca. A.D. 500, a substantial increase in
cereal-type records indicates cereal cultivation first
becomes an important component of the farming
economy (see also an increase in arable weeds; Figs.
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
18
4b, 5a). Secale-type pollen is recorded sporadically
during ca. A.D. 530–760, and by ca. A.D. 630 the arable
component is at its maximum extent although
an economy dominated by grazing prevails. High
levels of catchment disturbance (see micro-charcoal
curve and fluctuations in LOI %; Figs. 4b, 5c) have a
considerable but now continuous effect on aquatic indicators.
The high representation of Isoetes indicates
unprecedented catchment erosion and sediment inwash
into the lake. The sediment accumulation rate
increases from this point onwards (~7 yr/cm; Fig. 5d),
emphasizing the combined effects of higher landto-
water material export and (possibly) increased
lake productivity (Bennett and Buck 2016). The
prevalence of shoreweed in shallow areas (L. uniflora
curve; Fig. 4b) may provide an indication of modifications
in physico-chemical parameters in the littoral
of the lake (Preston et al. 2002:537).
The increase in Pinus values in PAZ-8a merits
consideration, with the pine curve expanding in two
instances in the profile, at the onset of PAZ-5 and
PAZ-8 (Pinus curve; Fig. 4). After a widespread
decline at ca. 2000 B.C., pine populations in Ireland
were thought to have survived in isolated pockets
before becoming extinct at ca. A.D. 400 (Roche et
al. 2009). However, some evidence suggests the
survival of relict pine stands through the historical
period (McGeever and Mitchell 2016; Overland and
O’Connell 2008, 2011). In L. Muckno, increased influx
of Pinus pollen may indeed reflect the presence
of pine within the regional source area of the lake
that is only expressed during periods of decreased
influx of other AP. However, considering the degree
of anthropogenic “forcing” on catchment soils during
PAZ-5 and particularly PAZ-8, a logical argument
for this feature would also be reworking of
old pollen into the lake (Edwards and Whittington
2001). While there is some evidence for reworked
material higher up in the profile (see 14C reversal at
301 cm; Figs. 3, 5), there is nothing to suggest this
is a factor in this part of the sediment record.
Woody vegetation clearance and expansion of
agricultural activity through PAZ-8 is gradual, with
human activity in Subzone 8a (ca. A.D. 220–440)
representing a brief transitional period from the
LIAL into the historical period (PAZ-8b), also reported
in regional profiles (Table 4), and which has
been suggested to reflect Romano-British influence
in Ireland (McCormick 2014). Given the active
role that many ecclesiastical settlements played
in the agrarian economy (Ó Corráin 2005), a potential
link between this phase of increased cereal
cultivation and the monastery at L. Muckno (Fig.
2) is possible. Ó Dufaigh (2011) suggests that the
monastery was already established by ca. A.D. 700
(note peak in cereal-type pollen at ca. A.D. 630). The
pollen record from Church Lough (O’Connell and
Ní Ghráinne 1994) reflects a comparable scenario,
with an upsurge in cereal cultivation seemingly
corresponding to the foundation of a monastic site
next to the lake in the late 7th century. On the other
hand, Hall (2005) found no palynological evidence
to support increased arable farming along with the
establishment of a number of monastic settlements
in different parts of Ireland.
The local prevalence of ringforts (Fig. 2) reflects
landscape openness and a settlement pattern
based on individual farmsteads characteristic of the
time (Edwards 2005:238, McCormick et al. 2011)
and supports palynological evidence for increased
farming from ca. A.D. 500. The modern townland
Tullanacrunat (Tulaight na Cruithneachta), translating
into the “the hill of bread-wheat” (Carville and
Duffy 2011:15), situated in the southern shore of the
coring location may provide placename evidence for
cereal cultivation. The word cruithnecht or “breadwheat”
is included in a list of cereal-crop varieties in
a Medieval Irish law text as a staple cereal grain of
the time (Kelly 1997:219–221). The introduction of
Secale at ca. A.D. 530 corresponds well with available
Irish macrofossil evidence (McClatchie et al.
2015), suggesting its adoption among cereal-crop
varieties during the early stages of the historical
period. However, it does not appear to have become
of major importance in this area.
The results from L. Muckno integrate well with
the post- A.D. 700 regional expansion of agricultural
activity and focus on arable farming (Table
4). However, a phase of woodland regeneration
recorded regionally during the 6th century and tentatively
attributed to climatic deterioration (Weir
1993, 1995) is not evident in the pollen record of L.
Muckno. Examples from further afield (Ghilardi and
O’Connell 2013; Lomas-Clarke and Barber 2004;
Molloy and O’Connell 2004, 2016; Newman et al.
2007; Overland and O’Connell 2008) tend to suggest
an increase in agricultural activity with the introduction
of a sizable arable component between the 5th
and 8th century A.D. (see Overland and O’Connell
2011 for a review). These steps towards a mixed
agricultural regime seem to have occurred slightly
earlier in L. Muckno and possibly in its regional
context. Kerr et al. (2009) suggest that the 8th and 9th
centuries A.D. in Ireland were marked by a climatic
downturn, which might have led to a shift towards
cereal-crop production as winter conditions became
too severe to support the traditional cattle-based
economy. This pattern may be (partially) reflected
in the pollen record of L. Muckno, with increased
cereal production during the 8th century A.D., but it
Journal of the North Atlantic
19
2017 No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
is clear that an expansion in cereal cultivation begins
earlier in the 7th century A.D.
Viking Age and Medieval (PAZ-9) (ca. A.D. 800–
1190). Based on cereal-type records, 3 distinct phases
in arable farming are apparent in PAZ-9, with an
initial disruption during ca. A.D. 830–960 (PAZ-9a),
followed by an increase ca. A.D. 990–1140 (PAZ-
9b), and a further interruption ca. A.D. 1160–1190
(PAZ-9c).
A degree of contraction in the extent of pastoral
habitats along with hazel and ash expansion is recorded
ca. A.D. 830–960 in PAZ-9a. Two distinct
disruptions in the cereal-type curve at ca. A.D. 830
and 960 along with (overall) lower cereal records
may provide evidence of local disturbance in cerealcrop
cultivation (see also contraction of Brassicaceae
curve in PAZ-9a; Fig. 4b).
In PAZ-9b, woody vegetation targeted for clearance
includes hazel, oak, birch, ash, and alder.
Grassland/pastoral habitats expand, pointing to
renewed emphasis on pastoral grazing. Increased
cereal-type records (inclusive of Secale) suggest
recovery in arable farming following the A.D. 960
disruption, attaining its maximum expression during
ca. A.D. 990–1140 (see also arable weeds; Figs.
4b, 5a). Cannabis/Hummulus-type records (Fig.
4b) may also provide discreet evidence for hemp
cultivation. The representation of aquatic indicators
and micro-charcoal indicate unparalleled levels of
catchment disturbance and human influence on the
lake environment following ca. A.D. 1100. Overall,
the sedimentary record reflects the predominance of
a mixed agrarian economy until a fall in cereal-type
records suggests arable farming declines once more
at ca. A.D. 1160.
It is possible that these distinct fluctuations in
cereal-type pollen relate to a period of local conflict
registered in documentary sources. Three events are
recorded in a range of monastic chronicles collectively
known as the Irish “annals” (Hennesy, 1866,
1887; O’Donovan 1848). The sacking of Muckno by
Vikings is described during A.D. 832 and 933. One
additional record suggests Muckno was plundered
“completely” during A.D. 1110 (see also Carville
and Duffy 2011:30–38). The correspondence of
these events with the 3 phases of disruption in cereal
cultivation recorded at L. Muckno is noteworthy.
However, the uncertainty associated with age–depth
modelling in this section of the core and each relevant
depth must be highlighted: 332 cm (A.D.
830 ± 250 years), 316 cm (A.D. 960 ± 250 years),
288 cm (A.D. 1160 ± 320 years) (Fig. 3; see also
Supplementary Table 1, available online at http://
www.eaglehill.us/JONAonline/suppl-files/J061316-
Chique-s1, and, for BioOne subscribers, at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1656/J061316.s1).
Chronological standardization of the Irish annals
(McCarthy 1998, 2008) provides reliability in
the accuracy of these annotated events which are
tentatively interpreted as reflective of a period of
“conflict” ca. A.D. 800–1190. It is possible that the
evidence presented here represents a (palynological)
measurable impact on farming activity. Viking
raids are considered to have had a disruptive effect
on local economies and demographics (Edwards
2005:295, Hughes 2005:638, Mitchell and Ryan
1997:297), and in this scenario, a disruption in
cereal cultivation and pastoral grazing is conceivable.
Alternative explanations include crop failure
and livestock losses resulting from both disease and
climatic deterioration reported in Medieval Irish
sources (see events at A.D. 700 and A.D. 964; Ó
Corráin 2005:576).
In terms of climate, the hypothesis put forward
by Kerr et al. (2009) may find some support in the
inferred contraction of pastoral grazing at ca. A.D.
800, while the upsurge in cereal production following
ca. A.D. 990 occurs within a background of
fair climatic conditions in the form of the Medieval
Warm Period (ca. A.D. 950–1250) (Mann et al.
2009). If climate amelioration indeed characterizes
the later stages of the Medieval, then perhaps an
even stronger argument can be made for conflict
resulting in the final disruption in cereal cultivation
at ca. 1160 A.D.
From ca. A.D. 800 onwards, the Irish palynological
record indicates continuous expansion towards a
mixed farming economy in which pastoral grazing
remains a fundamental component. The regional
evidence (Table 4) points to increased agricultural
activity during the Viking Age/Medieval, but it is
also clear that cereal cultivation is affected at different
times, a factor attributed by Weir (1995) to
climatic deterioration and/or conflict in the form
of Viking raids. The results presented here may
therefore support the hypothesis of conflict affecting
farming activity not only locally but also regionally.
Overall, excluding distinct disruptions in arable
farming, the pollen evidence from L. Muckno finds
good agreement with general patterns observed
in Ireland. During the period ca. A.D. 990–1140,
cereal-crop cultivation expands, achieving levels
hitherto unseen during the Holocene.
Conclusion
High-resolution palynological analysis in combination
with a chronology based on 14C and 210Pb
2017 Journal of the North Atlantic No. 32
C. Chique, K. Molloy, and A. Potito
20
from a sediment core from L. Muckno have enabled
the first account of Mid–Late Holocene landscape
change in County Monaghan. Following a brief
Neolithic Landnam, a period of undiscernible human
activity in a predominantly wooded environment
is apparent until the Early Bronze Age. From this
point onwards, human activity in the landscape is
continuous, but at variable levels of intensity, with
hazel scrub and herbaceous taxa gradually becoming
dominant components of the vegetation structure. A
more homogeneous trend towards increased activity
and a mixed agrarian economy is recorded from
the onset of the historical period. Farming activity,
removal of woodland cover and expansion of open
habitats climax during the Viking Age/Medieval period.
The possibility of a period of “conflict” resulting
in consecutive fluctuations in farming activity
serves to emphasize the importance of collation of
documentary and paleoecological records, particularly
if a high sampling resolution and reasonable
chronological constraint are available.
The high expression of arboreal pollen is a characterizing
feature of the pollen profile as a whole
and is a factor attributable to the large surface area
of the lake. The enhanced dispersal capacity of AP
is reflected in its elevated representation throughout
prehistorical and historical periods even when
woodland cover in the landscape is at its minimum
(Figs. 4a, 6). Nevertheless, the results presented here
demonstrate that the pollen record of this large lake
system can provide insights into localized events.
AP overrepresentation may partially account for
the low amount of cereal-type records through the
profile, forming a slender curve as often reported in
Irish pollen diagrams, and indicative of constant arable
farming in mineral soils close to the lake from
the Early Bronze Age onwards. The “continuity” in
cereal-type records, and hence the inferred arable
component, validates the benefit of implementing
high pollen counts in Irish palynological reconstructions,
particularly in systems with a tendency
towards high AP representation. The local interdrumlin
setting exerts a strong influence on the pollen
assemblage of the lake exemplified by the high
variability in Alnus pollen influx.
Tentative chronological associations with local
and regional archaeological records are established.
The integration of the results from L. Muckno with
patterns recognized in neighboring profiles results
in a more comprehensive regional palynological dataset
now encompassing areas of counties Armagh,
Louth, and Monaghan. A comparable collapse of elm
populations is recorded at L. Muckno and Redbog II,
whereas contrasting levels of activity at L. Muckno,
and perhaps Loughnashade, with a range of sites
during the Mid-Late Bronze Age is evident. An argument
can be made for an earlier onset of the LIAL,
as well as the subsequent upsurge in human activity
and woodland clearance towards the Early Historic
period in parts of Monaghan, but also in Louth and
Armagh, in contrast to several other locations in
Ireland.
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the support and help
received throughout this investigation from those listed
below. Pat O’Rafferty, Michelle McKeown, Seamus
McGinley, and Stephen Galvin helped during fieldwork.
Daisy Spencer assisted in the inspection of pollen data.
Michael O’Connell gave general advice on this investigation.
Heritage Officer Shirley Clerkin (Monaghan County
Council) kindly provided information on different aspects
of the study area and Grace Moloney (Clogher Historical
Society) provided regional historical information. Niall
Roycroft (National Roads Authority) was kind enough
to provide feedback on local archaeological records. Dan
McCarthy (Trinity College Dublin) gave assistance in the
interpretation and chronological standardization of the
Irish annals. Carlos Chique was financially supported by
a Postgraduate Fellowship from NUI, Galway (Hardiman
Research Scholarship). We also express gratitude to The
Irish Quaternary Research Association (IQUA) and the
14CHRONO Centre at Queen’s University Belfast for
providing a number of radiocarbon dates through the Bill
Watts 14 Chrono Award.
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