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2015 NORTHEASTERN NATURALIST 22(2):273–286
Long-term Trends in Water Quality in a New England
Hydroelectric Impoundment
Jennifer L. Klug1,* and Katherine Whitney1
Abstract - Lake Lillinonah, a hydroelectric impoundment on the Housatonic River, CT, is
characterized by frequent and extensive algal blooms during the summer months, and historical
accounts from the lake’s early years document the fact that algal blooms (dominated
by cyanobacteria) have been a concern since the lake’s creation in 1955. Algal blooms create
lethal oxygen conditions for aquatic organisms, impair recreation, and produce toxins
that are harmful to people, pets, and wildlife. To help understand current and future trends
in water quality, we reconstructed the historical water quality of Lake Lillinonah from 1974
to 2009. Our results suggest that water temperature, phosphorus concentration, and nitrogen
concentration all play a role in determining summer water clarity. Additionally, although
total phosphorus concentration has decreased since the early 1970s, total nitrogen concentration
has remained constant likely due to differences in watershed nutrient-management
strategies, and water clarity in the lake remains poor. We suggest that a continued effort
to reduce both nitrogen- and phosphorus-loading is necessary in order to improve water
clarity, particularly considering the observed increase in storm-loading events and warmer
temperatures predicted as the climate warms.
Introduction
Freshwater lakes and impoundments are key components of both human and
natural systems, providing critical ecosystem services including drinking water,
recreation, hydropower generation, flood control, transportation, and food (Hassan
et al. 2005). Because many freshwater ecosystems have been altered by human
activity, monitoring and active management of water quality are necessary to
maintain desired ecosystem services (Carpenter et al. 2011). Within-lake water
quality is regulated by a host of factors, including watershed land-use (Downing
and McCauley 1992), food-web structure (Carpenter and Kitchell 1996), and lake
morphometry (Noges 2009).
Water quality is a relative measure of the suitability of water for a particular use
and can be measured in a number of different ways. Some common metrics used to
quantify and monitor water quality include nutrient concentration, water clarity,
dissolved oxygen concentration, and presence/absence of certain indicator species
(Ahuja 2013). Identifying historical trends in water quality is crucial when trying to
understand current impacts and how changes in drivers such as land use and climate
will affect future water quality. For example, a recent study used historical patterns in
the relationship between cyanobacterial blooms and lake temperature to model future
bloom prevalence given predicted climate change (Wagner and Adrian 2009).
1Biology Department, 1073 North Benson Road, Fairfield University, Fairfield, CT 06824.
*Corresponding author - jklug@fairfield.edu.
Manuscript Editor: Hunter J. Carrick
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To help understand current and future trends in water quality, we reconstructed
the historical water quality of Lake Lillinonah, a hydroelectric impoundment on
the Housatonic River, from its creation in 1955. Lake Lillinonah is a eutrophic
system with a history of frequent and extensive algal blooms during the summer
months. Historical accounts from the lake’s early years document that algal
blooms have been a concern since the lake’s creation. Water-quality data have
been collected on Lake Lillinonah intermittently since the early 1970s, but there
has been no comprehensive analysis of the entire time-series. Our objectives were
to assess whether water quality in Lake Lillinonah has changed over time and to
identify whether there was a relationship between nutrient concentration and water
clarity during the history of the lake. In addition, we examined whether any
patterns in water quality could be explained by hydrologic events or changes in
nutrient management within the watershed.
Methods
Site description
Lake Lillinonah is an impoundment on the Housatonic River, in western central
Connecticut (Fig. 1). The Housatonic River is one of 3 major tributaries of Long Island
Sound (CTDEP and NYSDEC 2000). In the watershed above Lake Lillinonah,
much of the underlying geology is metamorphic schist and granite with some areas
of marble (Bell 1985). The large (~360,000 ha) watershed includes parts of western
Figure 1. Map of the Housatonic River watershed (river in black and watershed shaded) and
Lake Lillinonah (inset). The central lake sample station is marked with an arrow.
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Massachusetts, eastern New York, and much of western Connecticut (Fig. 1). It
includes backwaters from the Housatonic and Shepaug rivers. The lake was created
following construction of Shepaug Dam in 1955 by Connecticut Light and
Power and is used for hydroelectric generation and recreation. The 626-ha lake has
a maximum depth of 30.5 m near the dam (Healy and Kulp 1995) and a mean depth
of 13.4 m (Klug et al. 2012). Residence time is relatively short but highly variable
depending on river flow and hydropower generation. Published values for average
residence time range from 17–24 d (Healy and Kulp 1995, USEPA 1975a). The
impoundment is used to alleviate flooding in times of high flow, and the water level
is lowered up to 3 m preceding predicted heavy rain. Land use in the watershed is
a mix of forested and developed areas with some agriculture.
Recent environmental history
Historically, Pittsfield, MA, New Milford, CT, and Danbury, CT, had significant
industrial activities in the watershed above Lake Lillinonah (Fredette 1992).
One legacy of this activity is elevated concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) in the sediments of the Housatonic River and its impoundments. From
1932 to 1977, a General Electric (GE) plant in Pittsfield, MA, discharged PCBs
into the river as a byproduct of electrical-transformer manufacturing. In 1999, GE
reached a settlement with the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and
the states of Massachusetts and Connecticut, and agreed to pay for remediation of
contaminated sediments as well as restoration of natural resources along the entire
river. Significant sediment remediation of a short river section near the plant was
completed in 2007 (USEPA 2009). Remediation in the rest of the river has focused
on habitat restoration and sediment containment and is ongoing (Sperduto 2013).
Despite these efforts, concentrations of PCBs in some fish species are still elevated
and restrict their availability for human consumption for much of the river and its
impoundments (CTDPH 2013).
Another legacy of human activity in the watershed is excessive loading of
nitrogen and phosphorus from both point and nonpoint sources. Point sources
within the watershed include municipal wastewater-treatment plants and industrial
discharge. Nonpoint sources include atmospheric deposition, fertilizer
and manure runoff, and urban stormwater runoff (Trench 2000). By the early to
mid-1970s, researchers had established that excessive nutrient loading, primarily
phosphorus, was the cause of eutrophication in lakes worldwide (Schindler
1974, USEPA 1975a, Vollenwieder 1976), and efforts to reduce phosphorus
loading in the Housatonic River were intensified (Fredette 1992). By the late
1980s, phosphorus removal was implemented at least seasonally at municipal
wastewater-treatment plants throughout the Lake Lillinonah watershed, and
agricultural best-management practices were implemented in parts of the watershed
(Fredette 1992). More recently, during the 2000s, there have been regional
efforts to reduce nitrogen loading in inland waters as part of a plan to reduce nitrogen
concentrations in Long Island Sound (CTDEP and NYSDEC 2000). When
all planned upgrades are complete, it is expected that the wastewater-treatment
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plants in the Connecticut portion of the Lake Lillinonah watershed will have reduced
their nitrogen discharges by 50–66% (CTDEEP 2013).
Along with efforts to reduce nutrient loading, steps have been taken to mitigate
some of the impacts of eutrophication in Lake Lillinonah. To reduce algal blooms
temporarily, copper sulfate was applied as an algaecide at intermittent intervals
for at least 35 y (Norvell and Frink 1975; S. Young, Lake Lillinonah Authority,
Brookfield, CT, pers. comm.). In addition, because water at the Shepaug Dam turbine
gates is frequently hypoxic, power generation led to poor oxygen conditions
and fish kills in the downstream basin, Lake Zoar (CTDEP and NU 1988, Fredette
1992). In 2006, a liquid-oxygen diffuser was installed at the bottom of Lake Lillinonah
near the dam to oxygenate the water before sending it through the turbines
to Lake Zoar (FLPR 2007).
Data sources
To examine historical water quality, we compiled nutrient data for 24 y from
the 36-y period between 1974 and 2009 (1974–1991, 2002–2003, and 2006–2009).
The number of data points per year (May–September) for total phosphorus (TP)
and total nitrogen (TN) ranged from 2 to 15 with a median of 7 for TP and a median
of 5 for TN. Secchi depth data was available for 17 years during that time period
(May–September, n = 2–15, median = 6).
We gathered data from a number of sources (Table 1). There were several studies
conducted in the 1970s and 1980s designed to assess the impacts of wastewatertreatment
plant upgrades on water quality in the lake (CTDEP and NU 1988;
Fredette 1983, 1986, 1987, 1988; Jones and Lee 1981; Smith and Brown 1978;
USEPA 1975a). In addition, the US Geological Survey (USGS) conducted routine
monitoring in the lake from 1974–1991, and we obtained those data from the USGS
Table 1. Sources of data used in this study. x indicates which parameters were available from each
source. CTDEP = Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection, FOTL = Friends of the Lake,
NU = Northeast Utilities, LLA = Lake Lillinonah Authority, USEPA = US Environmental Protection
Agency, USGS = United States Geological Survey.
Parameter
Secchi Total Total Surface-water
Source Date range depth phosphorus nitrogen temperature Turbidity
CTDEP unpubl. data 1980 x x
CTDEP unpubl. data 1983 x x x
CTDEP and NU 1988 1984–1985 x x x x
FOTL unpubl. data 2006, 2008 x x x
Fredette 1983 1981–1982 x x
Fredette 1986, 1987, 1988 1986–1988 x x
Klug unpubl. data 2003 x x x
Knoecklein 2004 2002–2003 x x x x
LLA unpubl. data 2006–2009 x x x x
Smith and Brown 1978 1976–1977 x x x x
USEPA 1975b 1975 x x x
USGS unpubl. data 1974–1991 x x x x x
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online data-repository. Much of the data from the 2000s was from monitoring
studies commissioned by (1) Friends of the Lake, a local non-profit environmental
organization and (2) Lake Lillinonah Authority, the municipal management board
funded by the 6 surrounding towns. These monitoring studies were conducted by
limnological consulting companies (Northeast Aquatic Research, LLC and HydroTechnologies,
Inc.). J. Klug provided unpublished data from 2003. We also
retrieved reports (Norvell and Frink 1975), data sheets from state monitoring
efforts, and anecdotal evidence related to lake-water quality from the files at the
Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection (formerly the
Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection). To study the effects of river
flow, we used USGS discharge data from the closest station (#01200500), located
approximately 5 km upstream on the Housatonic River at Gaylordsville, CT.
Sampling and analytical methods followed standard limnological practices but
varied depending on the data source. All nutrient samples were analyzed at stateor
federally certified laboratories according to their standard operating procedures.
Most of the studies we used were of fairly short duration (1–3 years). The USGS,
the source of our longest data record (19 years), analyzed whether changes in their
methods affected the interpretation of historical data. For the period we studied
(1974–1991), there were no changes in USGS methods that would bias our interpretations
(Trench 1996).
Data analysis
To analyze historical water quality, we chose one central location (Fig. 1) that
was a common sampling site in both historical and current studies. We analyzed
surface samples—defined as samples taken at between 0 and 1 m depths—from
May to September. We chose May–September as our focal period because those
were the most common months represented in our data set. In addition, May–September
coincides with the period of most-intense algal blooms and recreational use.
Visual inspection of scatter plots showed several outliers in discharge, turbidity,
and nutrient concentration in the days and weeks following Hurricane Belle in
1976. Although extreme events play an important role in water quality, we were
most interested in factors driving water quality during more typical conditions,
thus we removed the post-Hurricane Belle data points from the analysis described
below. Following removal of outliers, the data were normally distributed and we
did not transform the data.
To identify trends in historical water quality, we calculated average summer
values of TP concentration (mg/L), TN concentration (mg/L), TN:TP ratio, and
Secchi-disk depth (m). Due to several temporal data gaps in the record, we did not
conduct statistical trend analysis and instead discuss patterns over time based on
visual inspection.
We used Pearson correlation analysis with a conservative 2-tailed test to explore
associations between variables (TN, TP, Secchi depth) and factors potentially affecting
them (water temperature, discharge, turbidity).
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Results and Discussion
Historical trends in water clarity
Lake Lillinonah has shown symptoms of eutrophication since its creation in
1955. The first known data sheet, from 1956 (Fig. 2), recorded a Secchi depth of
0.3 m (1 ft) and 0.3 mg/L dissolved oxygen on the bottom. We did not find Secchi
depth or nutrient data from the 1960s, but notes on other data sheets suggest
similar poor conditions. For example, a fisheries data sheet from 31 August 1963
noted a “dense bloom of algae”. Similarly, a letter from a limnological consultant
to the State Water Resources Commission described a 6 July 1970 boat ride during
which the observer recorded “very heavy bloom conditions” throughout the entire
mainstem arm of the lake and near the dam (Benoit 1970). A report prepared for
the National Eutrophication Survey identified high nutrient loading and concentration
within the lake and concluded that recreation within the lake was impaired by
“blue-green” algal blooms (USEPA 1975a).
Average summer Secchi depth was variable across years (range = 1.2 m in 1986
to 2.8 m in 2003) but showed no trend over time (Fig. 3). Turbidity at the mid-lake
station was generally low (97% of samples on record were less than 10 NTU) indicating
that the variability in summer water clarity was due to variability in algal biomass.
Under the trophic-status classification used by the Connecticut Department of Energy
and Environmental Protection (CTDEP 1991), the lake was consistently eutrophic
(Secchi depth < 2 m) throughout the period of record (CTDEP 1991) except 5
years which were more characteristic of late mesotrophic conditions (Secchi depth
= 2–3 m in 1981, 1982, 1983, 1987, and 2003). Secchi-depth data was only available
for ~70% of the years in which we had nutrient data, which limited our ability
to compare patterns with the nutrient-concentration time-series. In addition, average
water clarity may have been affected by treatment of the lake with the algaecide
copper sulfate in some years (Norvell and Frink 1975; S. Young, pers.comm).
Historical trends in nutrient concentration
Average summer TP concentration in Lake Lillinonah trended downward from
1974 through 1991 (Fig. 4a). This period corresponded with significant efforts to
Figure 2. Earliest known data-sheet recording Lake Lillinonah water quality on 6 September
1956.
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reduce point-source loading of phosphorus from municipal wastewater-treatment
plants in the watershed (Fredette 1992) and is consistent with a regional trend
identified by Trench (1996). Trench (1996) analyzed trends in water-quality data
for the period 1975–1988 for 30–40 sites in Connecticut (primarily rivers) and
found a downward trend in TP concentration at 70% of the sites, including a site in
Lake Lillinonah and 1 on the mainstem of the Housatonic River just upstream. TP
concentration during the 2000s was lower than the 1970s but higher than concentrations
in the early 1990s (Fig. 4a).
Despite substantial reductions in point sources, it is likely that nonpoint phosphorus
loading increased in the latter part of the record as population size in the
area increased. For example, Danbury, the largest city in the watershed, grew by
25% from 1990 to 2010 (US Census Bureau 2014). Under the trophic status classification
used by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection (CTDEP
1991), the lake was consistently eutrophic (TP > 0.03 mg/L) or hypereutrophic (TP
> 0.05 mg/L) during the period of 1979–1989. In 1990 and 1991, TP concentrations
fell into the late mesotrophic category. During the 2000s, TP concentrations
hovered near the 0.03-mg/L boundary between late mesotrophic and eutrophic
conditions. The change in trophic status highlighted the decline in TP concentration
over time but also the increase in the 2000s.
There was no apparent trend in average summer TN concentration during the
period of record (Fig. 4b). This result is not surprising given that nutrient-reduction
strategies in the watershed were focused on phosphorus (Fredette 1992). Regional
cross-site studies of water quality, primarily using river sites, detected either no
Figure 3. Average and standard error of May–September Secchi-disk depth taken at a midlake
station in Lake Lillinonah.
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statewide trend (Colombo and Trench 2002, Trench 1996) or increasing TN concentrations
(Trench 1996) depending on the time period studied. Trench (1996)
analyzed data from a site within the lake and 2 sites in tributaries and found an
increase in TN concentration during 1975–1988 but no trend during 1981–1988.
In contrast, Colombo and Trench (2002) found no trends in TN concentration from
1992–1998 at 4 tributary sites. Using the trophic-status rubric based on TN, the
lake was consistently eutrophic (TN > 0.6 mg/L) with a few hyperutrophic (TN > 1
mg/L) years and 1 late mesotrophic year.
Figure 4. Average
and standard error
of May–September
(a) total phosphorus
concentration,
(b) total nitrogen
concentration, and
(c) total phosphorus-
to-total nitrogen
ratio in surface
(0–1 m) samples
taken from a midlake
station in Lake
Lillinonah.
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The decline in TP coupled with stable TN resulted in an increase in the TN:TP
ratio between 1974 and 1991 (Fig. 4c). This result is consistent with other studies
that found an increase in TN:TP ratio in areas where the target for reduction was
phosphorus (Jeppesen et al. 2005) and comparative studies that showed that TN:TP
ratios were lower in lakes with high TP (Downing and McCauley 1992). The ratio
stabilized in the 2000s at ~30 TN:TP by mass. Reviews of nutrient-limitation studies
suggested that algal communities would likely have been limited by phosphorus
at ratios observed in the 2000s (Guilford and Hecky 2000).
Relationships between variables
Across all years, Secchi-disk depth was negatively correlated with TP (r = -0.27,
P = 0.006, n = 111), TN (r = -0.29, P =0.01, n = 75) and surface-water temperature
(r = -0.25, P = 0.02, n = 68). Thus, water clarity was lower when nutrient concentration
and water temperature were higher. These results correspond with our
general understanding of the physiological factors regulating algal growth and are
consistent with the indication that variability in water clarity in Lake Lillinonah is
driven by variability in algal biomass and not turbidity (see above). A large body of
comparative work shows that algal biomass increases as both TN and TP concentration
increase (e.g., Guilford and Hecky 2000, Mazumder and Havens 1998) and that
nitrogen, phosphorus, or both limit algal growth (e.g., Elser et al. 2007). Similarly,
an increase in temperature generally increases algal growth and an increase in algal
blooms is one predicted consequence of warming due to global climate change
(Jeppesen et al. 2009, Johnk et al. 2007, Moss et al. 2011).
After we removed the post-Hurricane Belle data points from our analysis (see
methods), TP and TN were not correlated with turbidity or discharge (P > 0.05
in all cases). Interestingly, there was no significant correlation between TN and
TP concentration (P > 0.05). Large-scale comparative studies have found TN
and TP correlated across lakes (Bachmann et al. 1996, Downing and McCauley
1992). Because much of the historical focus on nutrient reduction has been on
phosphorus but not nitrogen, the concentrations in Lake Lillinonah are uncoupled
(Fig. 4a, b). The decoupling is evident in the increasing trend in TN:TP throughout
the early part of the record (Fig. 4c). Although the TN:TP ratio stabilized in
the 2000s, the current efforts to substantially reduce nitrogen loading to the rivers
that feed Long Island Sound (CTDEP and NYSDEC 2000) will likely lead to a future
decrease in the TN:TP ratio if phosphorus loading is not reduced at the same
rate. Phytoplankton community structure is strongly influenced by resource ratios
(Smith and Bennett 1999, Tilman 1982) and cyanobacteria typically dominate at
low TN:TP ratios (Elser 1999, Smith 1983). Although the summer phytoplankton
community in Lake Lillinonah is already dominated by cyanobacteria (J. Klug,
unpubl. data), blooms may be exacerbated by further reduction in TN:TP when
physical conditions are favorable (Elser 1999).
Impacts of extreme hydrological events
On 10 August 1976, Hurricane Belle made landfall on Long Island, NY and
passed over Connecticut bringing high winds and heavy rainfall (Lawrence
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1977). The USGS sampled Lake Lillinonah on 11 August 1976 (the day after
Belle) and 14 September 1976 (~1 month after Belle) (Fig. 5). We did not include
post-Belle samples in our analysis of long-term trends because the values
were not representative of 1976 summer conditions. Both samples had very high
turbidity and total phosphorus concentrations (Fig. 5) reflecting high sediment
and nutrient loading to the lake following the storm. Values returned to near the
1976 baseline by 18 October 1976. A recent study documented a similar pattern
following Tropical Cyclone Irene in 2011 (Klug et al. 2012). The impact of these
loading events on water quality depends on how much of the phosphorus is retained
within the system relative to that flushed downstream during the period of
high flow. After Belle, both turbidity and TP remained elevated a month after the
storm despite a reduction in discharge, indicating that some of the storm-related
nutrients were retained. This observation underscores one of the challenges of
detecting the influence of extreme events. Because extreme hydrological events
are rare, high-frequency regular monitoring or targeted sampling is necessary
to better understand the effect of these events on overall water quality. Extreme
events have increased in frequency in much of the US (Diffenbaugh et al. 2005,
NCIA 2006) suggesting that planning for increases in storm-driven phosphorus
loading is essential (Jeppeson et al. 2009).
Figure 5. Turbidity (solid circles) and total phosphorus (TP) concentration (open circles) in
surface samples taken from a mid-lake station in Lake Lillinonah as part of the US Geological
Survey (USGS) water-quality monitoring program. Hurricane Belle hit the area on 10
August 1976.
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Future considerations
By establishing a baseline dataset for 1974–2009, this study lays the groundwork
for future studies of water quality in Lake Lillinonah. Our results demonstrate
that both in-lake nutrient concentration (TP and TN) and weather conditions (water
temperature) are important in determining water clarity in Lake Lillinonah. Despite
historical reductions in phosphorus and other pollutants (e.g., PCBs), Lake Lillinonah
is still listed as impaired for recreation and fish consumption under section
303(d) of the Federal Clean Water Act (CTDEEP 2012). Recreational impairment
is caused by excess nutrients and algal growth (CTDEEP 2012); further reductions
in nutrient loading are necessary to improve water quality.
There are a number of significant recent changes in the Lake Lillinonah watershed
that will likely impact future water quality. Changes to permit limits and
wastewater-treatment plant upgrades in the late 2000s have resulted in reduced
phosphorus and nitrogen loading in Lake Lillinonah’s tributaries (CTDEEP 2013,
CTDEP 2008), and continued monitoring will be necessary to track whether
these changes lead to reduced in-lake concentrations and improved water clarity.
Other factors which may influence future water quality include the recent (~2010)
invasion of zebra mussels (Biodrawversity 2011) and future increases in water temperature
and frequency of extreme loading events due to ongoing climate change
(Jeppeson et al 2009).
Acknowledgments
This work was partially funded by a Friends of the Lake internship to K. Whitney and
a grant from The Science Institute of the College of Arts and Sciences at Fairfield University.
Thanks to Charles Lee and William Foreman at the Connecticut Department of Energy
and Environmental Protection for access to DEEP files and data sheets; Jon Morrison and
Mike Columbo at the US Geological Survey for access to USGS data; and Friends of the
Lake, the Lake Lillinonah Authority, and George Knoecklein for access to data in reports.
We thank Tod Osier for Figure 1 and Janet Fischer, Katherine Webster, and Tod Osier for
helpful comments on earlier drafts of the manuscript.
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