1Department of Biological Sciences, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City,
TN 37614-1710. 2Department of Biology, Warren Wilson College, Asheville, NC
28815. *Corresponding author - janddnelson@yahoo.com.
“Smoky Bears”—Tardigrades of Great Smoky
Mountains National Park
Diane R. Nelson1,* and Paul J. Bartels2
Abstract - As part of the All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory (ATBI) in Great Smoky
Mountains National Park (GSMNP), we have collected nearly 600 samples from
soil/decomposed leaf litter, lichens and mosses on trees, and stream sediment and
periphyton within all 19 permanent ATBI plots, with additional samples from caves,
rock lichens, seeps, and bird nests. Tardigrades have been extracted from samples
using centrifugation with Ludox AMTM and mounted on individual microscope slides
in Hoyer’s medium for identification under phase and DIC microscopy. Prior to our
study, only three species of tardigrades had been reported from a few samples in the
park. We have now examined over 9000 slides from 401 samples and recorded 73
species, 14 of which we believe may be new to science. Using EstimateS 7.5 software
for each of the major tardigrade habitats, we estimate a total species richness of ≈96
limno-terrestrial species in the park. In this paper, we discuss challenges inherent in
tardigrade taxonomy and the need for revisions of species groups.
Introduction
The Phylum Tardigrada, commonly known as “water bears,” consists of
charismatic microfauna (0.05–1.2 mm) with a ubiquitous distribution in a
diversity of niches in terrestrial and aquatic (both freshwater and marine) interstitial
environments throughout the world. These hydrophilous metazoans
are active only when there is a film of water covering their cylindrical bodies
and four pairs of telescoping lobopod legs terminating in claws and/or adhesive
disks. As the water evaporates, terrestrial tardigrades and some intertidal
species enter a state of cryptobiosis that enhances their survival and dispersal.
Long-term survival in the cryptobiotic state is probably less than a decade,
rather than 100 years as previously thought (Jönsson and Bertolani 2001). Most
tardigrades feed by piercing plant or animal cells with a pair of cuticular stylets
and sucking out the contents with a muscular pharynx (see Kinchin 1994 and
Nelson 2001, 2002 for reviews of the morphology and ecology of the phylum).
Approximately 1000 species of tardigrades have been described in the
literature (Guidetti and Bertolani 2005), but the total number of existing
species has not even been estimated. Our knowledge of the distribution of
tardigrades is based on limited collections from around the world, and the
descriptions of type species range anywhere from a thorough analysis of
characters with professionally produced illustrations to inadequate descriptions
that are incomplete or inaccurate with poorly drawn figures. Some of
the older descriptions were based on observations made only under a light
229
The Great Smoky Mountains National Park All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory:
A Search for Species in Our Own Backyard
2007 Southeastern Naturalist Special Issue 1:229–238
230 Southeastern Naturalist Special Issue 1
microscope, while more recent ones have utilized observations from phase,
DIC, SEM, and TEM microscopy. In addition, many type specimens from
the early descriptions are lost or damaged or non-existent. Much of the taxonomy
of tardigrades is in drastic need of revision of genera, species groups,
and individual species. The last “complete” monograph of the phylum was
by Ramazzotti and Maucci (1983), which included only 548 species.
A sister group to the Phylum Arthropoda (Garey et al. 1996, 1999;
Giribet et al. 1996), tardigrades are divided into two main classes, Heterotardigrada
and Eutardigrada, recognized on the basis of characters of the
claws, buccal (feeding) apparatus, cuticle, and eggs. A third class, Mesotardigrada,
reported only once from a hot spring in Japan, is considered
dubious (see Kinchin 1994, Nelson 2001, Nelson and Marley 2000, Nelson
and McInnes 2002). Briefl y, the Heterotardigrada, usually found in terrestrial
and marine habitats, are the “armored” tardigrades, with a thickened
dorsal cuticle divided into plates, unbranched (single) claws on the four
pairs of legs, separate anus and gonopore, and sensory appendages on the
head (Fig. 1). The Eutardigrada, generally inhabiting freshwater and terrestrial
substrates, are the “naked” tardigrades, with smooth or ornamented
cuticles, paired branched (double) claws on the legs, cloaca, and a complex
buccal-pharyngeal apparatus, but lacking cephalic appendages (Fig. 2).
In June 2001, we initiated an inventory of the Phylum Tardigrada for the
All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory (ATBI) (see www.discoverlifeinamerica.
org) in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) (Sharkey 2001).
Previously, Riggin (1962) had reported only three species identified from
the park (Indian Gap at 1615 m, Sevier County–Swain County, TN–NC): Diphascon
pingue (Marcus), Macrobiotus harmsworthi Murray, and Minibiotus
intermedius (Plate). We reported our preliminary results for our first two field
seasons (Bartels and Nelson 2006) using species accumulation curves and
seven species richness estimates (EstimateS) to assess tardigrade species
richness in the GSMNP (Colwell 1997, Colwell and Coddington 1994). Based
on a subset of our analyzed samples (60 samples, 1510 identified tardigrades,
41 species), we predicted a range of 47 to 76 species, with generally similar
species richness in soil, lichen, moss, and stream habitats (Bartels and Nelson
2006). We also stated that we expected the number of tardigrade species, as
well as state records, to increase as more specimens were examined from our
samples. We compared the tardigrade fauna of the GSMNP with that previously
reported from Roan Mountain, TN–NC (Guidetti 1998; Guidetti et al.
1999; Maucci 1987; Nelson 1975; Nelson and McGlothlin 1993, 1996). Two
other multihabitat inventories in Italy (Bertolani and Rebecchi 1996) and Poland
(Dastych 1980) have indicated similar diversity, although it is difficult to
compare studies without sufficient information on sampling effort.
In this paper, we list the species identified thus far and discuss problems
associated with making definitive determinations of species at this time.
Methods
During five field seasons (2001–2005), we collected in all 19 of the ATBI
plots designated to represent all major biological communities within the
2007 D.R. Nelson and P.J. Bartels 231
Figure 1. A. SEM of the heterotardigrade Echiniscus mauccii, lateral view. B. SEM
of the heterotardigrade Echiniscus mauccii, frontal view.
232 Southeastern Naturalist Special Issue 1
Park. Approximately 600 samples were collected from the major habitats of
limno-terrestrial tardigrades: mosses and lichens on trees, soil/decomposed
leaf litter, and sediment and periphyton in streams. Additional samples were
collected from mosses and lichens on rocks as well as some samples from
caves, seeps, and bird nests (see Bartel’s and Nelson 2006 for details on
collection.) Environmental factors (altitude, slope, aspect, land cover, geology,
soil type, and moisture index) were recorded at the time of collection
or obtained from the GSMNP GIS database.
Tardigrades were extracted from samples using centrifugation with Ludox
AM™, individually mounted on microscope slides in Hoyer’s medium, and
studied with phase-contrast and DIC microscopy (Bartels and Nelson 2006).
The seven species richness estimates were re-calculated with EstimateS
7.5 software (Colwell 1997) for each of the major tardigrade habitats, using
Figure 2. A. SEM of the eutardigrade Macrobiotus tonollii, lateral view. B. SEM of
the eutardigrade Macrobiotus tonollii, frontal view.
2007 D.R. Nelson and P.J. Bartels 233
6220 identifiable specimens, rather than the 1334 from our previous study
(Bartels and Nelson 2006).
Results
As of June 2006, we have examined 9125 slides from a total of 401
samples. These samples included 103 stream samples from 13 streams, 86
tree lichen samples, 116 tree moss samples, 66 soil/decomposed leaf-litter
samples, and 30 miscellaneous samples. Of these slides, we have identified 8133 tardigrades to species. The total species list for the Park is now
73 species in 22 genera and 6 families (Table 1; see the current list as it is
updated at www.warren-wilson.edu/~pbartels). Fourteen of these species are
believed to be new to science and will be described in subsequent papers.
We have now established 70 new records for the Park (Table 1). Including
the new species in each state, we have found 34 new state records for North
Carolina and 38 for Tennessee (Table 1), since the GSMNP lies along the
border of two states. Table 1 also indicates which species were found in the
various habitats sampled, as of June 2006.
Based on our more extensive dataset (compared with Bartels and Nelson
2006), we have now increased our species richness estimates to range from
86–105 species in moss, lichen, soil, and stream habitats. Although none
of the seven estimators in EstimateS worked best for all habitats, we used
the best estimator for each habitat to predict a total species richness of ≈96
tardigrade species in the GSMNP (Bartels and Nelson 2007).
Discussion
Since the publication of the monograph on the Tardigrada by Ramazzotti
and Maucci (1983), several new taxa have been added or previous taxa amended
as revisions in the systematics of the phylum have been published (Guidetti
and Bertolani 2005). The discovery of new taxonomic criteria (Schuster et al.
1980), the evaluation of intraspecific variability (Pilato 1972, 1982, 1987),
and the use of TEM, SEM, and improved imaging techniques (Grigarick et
al. 1973, Kristensen 1987, Rebecchi 2001) have resulted in revisions of some
families, genera, species, and species groups.
During our preliminary identifications, specimens were often categorized
as belonging to “species groups” when the identification of the precise species
was not readily discernible. This may have been due to (1) the condition or orientation
of the specimen, (2) the quality of our phase/DIC microscope and thus
our inability to see specific characters, (3) the lack of eggs, and/or (4) the quality
of the original species descriptions, including taxonomic criteria, illustrations,
and measurements. Comparisons of specimens with hard-to-locate type material
(types are often missing or non-existent) and original descriptions in the
older literature make the problem of identification of species more difficult.
Difficulties arise in species identification especially in the eutardigrades due to
“the group’s homogeneity” and differentiation based on few “minute characteristics”
(Kinchin 1994). Quantitative measurements may vary due to (1) the fl exibility
and orientation of structures, such as the buccal-pharyngeal apparatus,
234 Southeastern Naturalist Special Issue 1
Table 1. Tardigrade species list for GSMNP, with habitat associations and range extensions, as of
June 2006. * = new state record, ** = new USA record, *** = new North America record, based on
Bateman and Collins(2001), Boeckner et al. (2006), Guidetti and Bertolani (2005), Kaczmarek and
Michalczyk (2003), and McInnes (1994). “Other” = bird nests, rock moss, and rock lichen.
Tree Tree
Family Species State moss lichen Soil Streams Other
Echiniscidae
Bryodelphax n. sp. TN*** X
Echiniscus horningi TN/NC X X X
E. mauccii TN/NC X X X X
E. mosaicus TN*/NC* X X
E. perviridis NC* X
E. virginicus TN*/NC* X X X
E. viridis group TN* X
Hypechiniscus gladiator TN/NC X X X X
Pseudechiniscus brevimontanus TN/NC* X X X X
P. n. sp. TN***/NC*** X X X
P. suillus group TN/NC X X X X X
Calohypsibiidae
Calohypsibius schusteri TN/NC X X X
Eohypsibiidae
Amphibolus cf. smreczinskii NC** X
A. cf. weglarskae TN** X
Hypsibiidae
Astatumen trinacriae TN/NC X X X X
Diphascon belgicae TN*/NC* X
D. cf. carolae TN***/NC*** X X X
D. cf. ramazzottii TN X
D. granifer TN*** X X
D. higginsi TN/NC* X X X X X
D. nobilei TN/NC* X X
D. nodulosum TN*/NC* X X X
D. patanei TN***/NC*** X X X X
D. pingue TN/NC X X X X
D. scoticum TN/NC X X X X X
Doryphoribius cf zappalai TN*** X X
D. n. sp. TN*** X X
D. sp. 1 TN* X
Doryphoribius sp 2 TN* X
Hypsibius convergens TN/NC* X X X X X
H. dujardini TN/NC* X X X
H. roanensis NC* X X X
Isohypsibius cf basalovoi TN***/NC*** X X
I. cf brevispinosus TN***/NC*** X X
I. cf deconincki TN*** X
I. granulifer TN/NC X X
I. lunulatus TN/NC X X X X
I. n. sp. 1 TN***/NC*** X X X
I. n. sp. 2 TN***/NC*** X X
I. n. sp. 3 TN***/NC*** X X
I. n. sp. 4 TN***/NC*** X
I. n. sp. 5 TN***/NC*** X X
I. sattleri TN/NC* X X
I. tuberculatus group TN* X X X X X
Itaquascon n. sp. TN***/NC*** X X
Mesocrista cf. spitzbergensis TN/NC* X X
Platicrista angustata TN/NC X X X
2007 D.R. Nelson and P.J. Bartels 235
Table 1, continued.
Tree Tree
Family Species State moss lichen Soil Streams Other
P. horribilis TN***/NC*** X X
Pseudobiotus n. sp. NC*** X
Ramazzottius baumanni TN* X X
R. oberhaeuseri group TN* X X X X
Thulinius augusti NC* X
T. ruffoi NC*** X
T. stephaniae TN*** X
Macrobiotidae
Dactylobiotus cf. grandipes TN/NC* X
Macrobiotus cf. crenulatus TN**/NC** X X
M. cf. echinogenitus NC* X
M. cf. liviae TN***/NC*** X X X
M. harmsworthi TN/NC X X X X
M. hufelandi group sp. 1 TN/NC X X X X X
M. hufelandi group sp. 2 TN/NC X X
M. richtersi TN*/NC X X X X
M. n. sp. 8 TN***/NC*** X X
M. n. sp. 9 TN*** X
M. tonollii TN/NC X X X X
Minibiotus intermedius group TN/NC X X X
M. lazzaroi TN**/NC** X X
M. pustulatus TN/NC X X X
Murrayon cf hastatus TN* X
M. cf. pullari TN X
M. n. sp. TN*** X
M. stellatus TN X
Milnesiidae
Milnesium n. sp. TN***/NC*** X X X X X
(2) the deformation of structures by coverslip pressure, (3) differences in
mounting media, or (4) variation in the measurements used by individual investigators.
Pigmentation in the cuticle and eyespots may vary considerably
over time and with various mounting media and therefore may be unreliable for
identification of some species. In the echiniscid heterotardigrades, the pattern
on the dorsal cuticular plates is of great importance (Kristensen 1987), but difficult to describe verbally, especially if the observer is using different types of
microscopy (light vs. phase or DIC or SEM) and various levels of focus. Many
of the earlier descriptions are particularly confusing in this regard.
One example of a species group is the Macrobiotus hufelandi complex, a
group of species similar to Macrobiotus hufelandi Schultze, the type species
for the genus. Ramazzotti and Maucci (1983) referred to this species as being
the “most common tardigrade” with a cosmopolitan distribution, although
variations in specimens identified as M. hufelandi have long been recognized.
Variations in the egg shell surface and processes of M. hufelandi presented
other problems (Grigarick et al. 1973). Since this species lays ornamented
eggs freely, outside the body of the female, it is necessary to find embryonate
eggs which have a buccal-pharyngeal apparatus sufficiently developed in
order to correlate the eggs, with their specific inverted egg-cup ornamentations,
with adults having similar buccal-pharyngeal structures. For example,
236 Southeastern Naturalist Special Issue 1
a number of morphologically similar species in the M. hufelandi complex
have been described based on characters of the eggs and adults by Bertolani
and Rebecchi (1993), as well as many other authors in recent years. Our slides
of the M. hufelandi group are currently being analyzed by Prof. Dr. Bertolani
(University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy) and Prof. Dr. Pilato (University
of Catania, Italy), world-renowned authorities on this group.
Other genera that lay ornamented eggs useful (or essential) for identification
are Minibiotus, Ramazzottius, Amphibolus, Murrayon, and
Dactylobiotus. Often these eggs are very small (≈50 μm) and frequently
overlooked (or absent) or misidentified when tardigrades are extracted from
the samples. Claxton (1998) revised the genus Minibiotus and the type
species, Minibiotus intermedius (Plate), and she described 11 new species
of Minibiotus from Australia, which may have been identified incorrectly
as the “cosmopolitan” Minibiotus intermedius based on older, imprecise
descriptions. Dr. Claxton is now analyzing our collection of the Minibiotus
intermedius group. Characters associated with both the eggs (Bertolani et
al. 1996) and sperm (Rebecchi 2001) have phylogenetic significance in tardigrades
and should be considered in systematic revisions.
Milnesium was long considered a cosmopolitan monotypic genus with
Milnesium tardigradum Doyère designated as the type species; however,
since 1990, additional species have been described, and the entire genus is
in need of revision (Nigel Marley, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK,
pers. comm.). Our specimens from GSMNP differ sufficiently from new
material collected from the type locality in France and will be described as
a new species in a separate paper.
Ultimately, as taxonomic issues are resolved and our database is completed,
we will determine the total number of species of limno-terrestrial species in the
GSMNP. We will evaluate the effectiveness of the seven species-richness estimators
(EstimateS) and compare biodiversity within the GSMNP with that
of other large-scale studies. Our long-term goal is a multivariate ecological
analysis of the environmental factors that contribute to tardigrade diversity and
distribution. We are also developing a key to the species of tardigrades in the
GSMNP, including photographs of the species and illustrations of all the characters
and character states. This key will be available on the Internet.
Acknowledgments
Partial funding for this work was provided by Discover Life in America and
The Environmental Leadership Center of Warren Wilson College. Gilbert Hale has
been our chief “bear hunter” and slide-maker. Over 20 undergraduate students from
Warren Wilson have assisted in the lab and with data processing. We appreciate the
assistance of our tardigrade colleagues with some species identifications. We also are
grateful for the comments of the reviewers.
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