Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 87 Canaan Valley & Environs 2015 Southeastern Naturalist 14(Special Issue 7):87–102 Overview of Hydrologic and Geologic Investigations Conducted in Canaan Valley, West Virginia Douglas B. Chambers1,*, Jeffrey B. Wiley1, and Mark D. Kozar1 Abstract - Canaan Valley (hereafter, the Valley), a unique wetland complex set in the Allegheny Highlands of northeastern West Virginia, has been the subject of several investigations by the US Geological Survey (USGS). These projects include studying the surface-water hydrology and processes affecting dissolved oxygen, groundwater hydrology, wetland biogeochemistry, and the formation of peat. Additionally, recent revisions of the region’s geologic maps have enhanced our understanding of the Valley’s surface rocks. The Valley’s streams typically conduct dilute calcium- and magnesium-bicarbonate type waters that are low in alkalinity, nutrients, and dissolved solids. The Blackwater River and its major tributaries, the Little Blackwater River and the North Branch of the Blackwater River, are low-gradient streams. Other tributaries are high-gradient streams that originate on the Valley’s sides and fall rapidly to the Valley floor before joining the Blackwater River and the major tributaries. Generally, low-gradient streams are less turbulent than high-gradient streams and dissolved oxygen concentrations are strongly affected by turbulence, re-aeration, benthic photosynthesis, and high biochemical oxygen demand in the numerous beaver ponds through which streams flow and which are present in the Valley. Groundwater in the Valley flows primarily along joints, faults, and bedding planes, and its quality is affected primarily by the mineral composition of the source rock. Septic discharges and, to a lesser extent, land applications of fertilizers and pesticides have affected groundwater locally. The most prevalent contaminants of concern in groundwater are bacteria, radon, and manganese. Nearly half of the wells sampled contained detectable concentrations of fecal streptococcus bacteria, and 25% had detectable concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria. Radon, a carcinogenic gas, was detected in 8 of 12 samples at concentrations exceeding proposed drinking water standards. During periods of stream base-flow, groundwater discharge dominates the flow and influences the chemical characteristics of the Valley’s streams. Substrate chemistry, communities of denitrifying bacteria, and plant-community structure were compared among four different wetland types in the Valley. Further wetland studies have estimated the peat resources available in the northern end of the Valley. In this paper, we summarize hydrologic and geologic investigations conducted by the US Geological Survey and others in the Valley over the last 8 decades. Introduction The peat wetlands and coniferous forests of West Virginia’s Canaan Valley (hereafter, the Valley) have been referred to as “a bit of Canada gone astray” (Fortney 1977). The Valley is a bowl-shaped depression in the Allegheny Highlands Section of the Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province of the Appalachian Mountains (Fig. 1). The Valley contains the largest wetland complex 1US Geological Survey, 11 Dunbar Street, Charleston, WV 25301. Corresponding author - dbchambe@usgs.gov. Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 88 in West Virginia—a mosaic of bogs, marshes, and streams. Extensive forests of both hardwood and softwood species border the wetland areas. Broad grasslands are also scattered throughout the Valley. This complex mixture of habitat types is home to many plants and animals typically found farther to the north (Fortney 1975). The Valley’s unique environment is the result of its geology, location, natural history, and, more recently, the effects of human alterations. Figure 1. Canaan Valley and surrounding areas. Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 89 The Valley formed from a breached anticline and the erosion of a ridge-crest of upward-folded rocks. The erosion of the rocks in the center of the breach formed the Valley’s floor. The rocks of the Valley floor have been eroding faster than those that form the Valley’s outlet, or water gap (Waldron and Wiley 1996). This process has caused the Valley’s waters to pond, creating conditions favorable to wetland formation and peat accumulation. The location of the Valley along the Allegheny Front is another key in the formation and maintenance of the extensive wetlands. Westerly air masses carrying Gulf and Atlantic moisture move across the Front. These air masses rise and cool, releasing moisture as precipitation along the Allegheny Highlands. This precipitation, ~53 in (135 cm) per year, provides the water necessary to form and maintain wetlands in the Valley and in other locations along the Allegheny Front (Little and Waldron 1996). These interactions of geology and location created the Valley and its extensive wetlands. The wetlands receive runoff from the surrounding hillsides and from groundwater discharge. Numerous small springs and seeps issue from contact points of the alternating sandstone and shale layers (Fig. 2; Kozar 1996, Little and Waldron 1996). This water flows to the poorly drained soils derived from eroded limestone that blanket the Valley floor (Little and Waldron 1996). Land uses in the Valley, which is the largest intermontane basin east of the Mississippi (Little and Waldron 1996), have changed significantly over the last 140 years. Once covered in dense forest, the Valley was logged heavily from the 1890s into the early 1900s (Clarkson 1964). After most wetland forests were removed, the extensive sphagnum bogs caught fire several times, with some fires burning Figure 2. Geohydrologic setting of the Canaan Valley wetland complex. Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 90 into the peat to depths of 3.28–4.26 ft (1–1.3 m). In more recent years, recreation and tourism have played a significant role in the Valley’s economy. Although the northern half of the Valley still contains large tracts of undeveloped wetlands, much of the southern half has been developed for tourism, recreation, and homes. State parks and ski resorts attract 1.2 million visitors to the Valley each year (Chris MaClay, Tucker County Information Center, Davis, WV, 1993 pers. comm.). The area has been a popular site for vacation and retirement homes, with the population of Tucker County increasing 16% between 1980 and 1990, but declining 5.3% between 1990 and 2000 (US Census Bureau 1991, 2002). Past Investigations The US Geological Survey (USGS) has conducted several studies in the Valley and adjacent areas to investigate aspects of surface and groundwater hydrology, geology, and wetlands ecology. These studies have been conducted in cooperation with State and federal agencies, including the West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection (WVDEP), the West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey (WVGES), and the US Army Corps of Engineers. Undertaken in response to changes in population and land use, the studies sought to characterize the Valley’s resources. Investigations of the Valley’s geology, peat resources, and wetland processes have provided basic information on the Valley’s environment. Increases in population and commercial development could affect the availability and quality of water resources in the Valley. The consequences of increased water demands on ground- and surface-water resources were unknown. The first step toward predicting future effects of increased withdrawals on the hydrologic system is to understand the current conditions of the system. Surface-water hydrology and quality Investigations of surface-water hydrology in the Valley have considered water quantity and water quality. Water-quantity investigations used a network of stream-flow gaging-stations to determine the volume and temporal characteristics of surface water moving through the Valley’s streams. Water-quality investigations examined the chemical characteristics of the Valley’s streams and have focused on dissolved oxygen (DO) and processes that affect DO. Gaging-station summary. The USGS has operated three continuous streamflow gaging-stations in the Valley and another just downstream from the Valley (Fig. 3). The Blackwater River at Davis (station number 0306600, drainage area = 89 mi2 [222 km2]), located just downstream from the Valley’s water gap, has operated since 1921. The Blackwater River at Davis is the only continuous stream-flow gaging-station that has operated long enough for scientists to develop accurate statistical summaries of stream flow as follows: annual mean stream-flow is 201.3 ft3/s (5.7 m3/s); the 90% flow-duration, which is the stream flow that is equaled or exceeded 90% of the time, is 19.1 ft3/s (0.54 m3/s); the 50% Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 91 flow-duration or median stream-flow is 110.9 ft3/s (3.14 m3/s); and the 10% flowduration is 476.8 ft3/s (13.5 m3/s). The maximum peak stream-flow, recorded on 5 November 1985, was 12,501.4 ft3/s (354 m3/s). The minimum low stream-flow of 1.5 ft3/s (0.042 m3/s) was recorded on 11 and 12 September 1959 when a small water-supply pool located about 1 mile upstream was being filled (Ward et al. Figure 3. Location of stream-flow gages and water -quality sample collection sites. Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 92 2002). The 7-day, 10-year low stream-flow, the lowest average stream-flow for 7 consecutive days that occurs once every 10 years, is 4.9 ft3/s (0.14 m3/s) (Friel et al. 1989). The 100-year peak stream-flow, the maximum stream-flow that occurs about once every 100 years, is 9605.6 ft3/s (272 m3/s) (Wiley et al. 2000). Other gaging stations in the Valley include (1) Blackwater River at Canaan Valley State Park—station number 03065050, drainage area ~9.5 mi2 (~24.6 km2), operated from October 1991 to September 1992; (2) Blackwater River at Cortland—station number 03065200, drainage area ~18.5 mi2 (~47.9 km2), operated from October 1991 to September 1993; and (3) Blackwater River near Davis—station number 03065400, drainage area ~54.8 mi2 (~142 km2) operated from October 1992 to September 1998. Continuous specific conductance, pH, temperature, and DO were also recorded at the Blackwater River near the Davis stream-flow gaging-station from October 1994 to September 1997 and again from June to September 2001. Daily continuous records are available on the web at http://wv.usgs.gov/wrt/ and have been published in the US Geological Survey’s Water Resources Data: West Virginia annual series. Blackwater River water quality and processes affecting dissolved oxygen. Waldron and Wiley (1996) assessed the quality of the Blackwater River in the Valley, and identified environmental processes that could affect DO concentrations in the river during periods of low flow. Water from streams in the Valley is a dilute calcium-magnesium bicarbonate type. Stream water is soft and low in both alkalinity and dissolved solids. Maximum values for specific conductance, hardness, alkalinity, and dissolved solids occurred during low-flow periods when stream flow was at or near base flow. Nitrogen and phosphorus were present at very low concentrations. Concentrations of nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, and un-ionized ammonia-nitrogen were always below the State’s water-quality limits. Concentrations of dissolved nitrite-nitrogen plus nitrate-nitrogen and dissolved orthophosphate-phosphorus were highest during periods of high stream-flow. Particulate forms of nitrogen were more abundant during summer low-flow periods and probably represented organic production within the streams. Dissolved oxygen concentrations were usually below the saturation concentrations and sometimes below the State’s water-quality limits near the headwaters, and usually were at or above saturation at other mainstem locations. At discharges near those of the 7-day, 10-year low flow, headwater streams can have supersaturated DO concentrations. Fecal coliform bacteria counts periodically exceeded the WVDEP maximum allowable concentration of 200 colonies per 100 mL. Maximum concentrations during the warmest months of the year often were in the thousands of colonies per 100 mL. Concentrations of dissolved iron and manganese were high. Contamination from pesticide applications was not evident in the Valley’s streams. Dissolved oxygen concentrations are most sensitive to processes affecting the rate of re-aeration. The rate of re-aeration is affected by processes that determine DO solubility, such as the interactions among atmospheric pressure, Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 93 water temperature, humidity, and cloud cover/sunlight, and processes that determine stream turbulence, e.g.,the interactions among stream depth, width, velocity, and channel roughness. Figure 4. Continuous water-quality monitoring data for the Blackwater River near Davis, WV (USGS gaging station 03065400) from 19 September 1994 to 1 July 1997. A. mean daily stream water temperature in °C, B. daily median stream pH, C. mean daily specific conductance in μS/cm, and D. mean daily dissolved oxygen concentration in mg/L. Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 94 Additional processes play significant roles in determining DO concentrations in the headwaters and beaver pools. In the headwaters, photosynthetic DO production by benthic algae can result in supersaturated DO concentrations. In beaver pools, DO consumption from sediment oxygen-demand and carbonaceous biochemical oxygen-demand can result in DO deficits. Additional water-quality investigations. Continuous specific conductance, pH, temperature, and DO data were collected at the Blackwater River near the Davis stream-flow gaging-station from October 1994–September 1997 (Fig. 4) and again from June–September 2001. The USGS operated these monitors in cooperation with the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) during 1995–1997 and with the WV Division of Water Resources in 2001. Specific conductance ranged from 16 to 132 mS/cm, with a mean of 54 mS/cm. The maximum pH value was 7.9 and the minimum was 5.1, with a median value of 7.0. The mean DO concentration was 10.5 mg/L, with a minimum of 4.0 mg/L (below West Virginia water-quality standards) and a maximum of 13.9 mg/L. In June and July 1993, the USGS, in cooperation with the USFWS, conducted a study of the effects of an off-road vehicle race on water quality in the Blackwater River (USFWS 1993). Samples were collected at locations upstream and downstream from the racecourse, starting one week before the race, continuing throughout the race, and for the two weeks following the race. All samples were analyzed for turbidity, suspended sediment, DO concentration, and fecal bacteria concentrations. The data suggest that activities related to the race and the festival associated with it increased turbidity, suspended sediment concentrations, and fecal bacteria concentrations. Geology, groundwater hydrology and quality The unusual geology that led to the formation of the Valley and the wetlands that characterize it also influences the availability and quality of water in the Valley. This influence is particularly important because the majority of the Valley’s residents rely on groundwater for their drinking water supply. The USGS has conducted or cooperated in investigations of the Valley’s geology and geohydrology. The geology of the Valley was surveyed by Reger et al. (1923), and their map has recently been revised by the WV Geological and Economic Survey (WVGES), in cooperation with the USGS (Matchen et al. 1999). Geohydrology and groundwater quality The USGS, in cooperation with WVDEP, WVGES, and the Canaan Valley Task Force, conducted a study of the Valley’s groundwater resources in response to projected increases in population, development, and water uses (Kozar 1996). The availability and quality of groundwater in the Valley are controlled primarily by geologic structure and lithology, i.e., the physical character of rock formations. All groundwater in the Valley originates as rain and snow falling in the Valley, and it interacts in complex ways with both the bedrock and surface Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 95 water. The Valley floor is underlain primarily by limestone rocks of the Greenbrier Group, with outcrops of the more resistant sandstones of the Pocono Group near the center of the Valley. Sandstones and shales of the Pottsville and Mauch Chunk groups form the hillsides and ridges of the Valley (Fig. 5). The bedrock is overlain by a discontinuous layer of unconsolidated deposits, including weathered rock, alluvium, and wetland peat and clay, ranging from 0 to 33 ft (0 to 10 m) in thickness. Groundwater flow is primarily via joints, faults, beddingplane partings, and other fractures in the rock. Groundwater is recharged by precipitation, which infiltrates the fracture network. In general, the density of fractures is greatest near the surface and decreases with depth. Well yields are generally adequate for most domestic and commercial needs. The average yield of inventoried wells completed in the Pottsville/Mauch Chunk, Greenbrier, and Pocono Groups were, respectively, 22.1, 22.5, and 19.2 gal/min (84, 85, and 73 L/min). The groundwater recharge rate estimated for the southern part of the Valley, based on discharge data for the gaging station at Cortland, is estimated at 343,423 gal/day (1.3 megaliters [106 L]/day) per square kilometer. Approximately 10% of all water used in the Valley is supplied from groundwater sources. Rural homeowners are almost entirely dependent on groundwater. In July 1991, the USGS collected water samples from 50 sites—43 wells and 7 springs—in the Valley. The samples were analyzed at the USGS National Figure 5. Generalized geologic section of Canaan Valley. Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 96 Water Quality Laboratory in Denver, CO, for total dissolved solids (TDS) and for common ions, including iron, manganese, sulfate, chloride, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, silica, and fluoride. Concentrations of ammonia, total phosphorus, orthophosphate-phosphorous, nitrate, nitrite, and organic nitrogen were also determined. Field measurements of pH, alkalinity (carbonate and bicarbonate), specific conductance, DO, fecal streptococcus bacteria, and fecal coliform bacteria were also made at each of the 50 sites. Samples from 12 of the 50 sites were analyzed for radon-222, a radioactive gas and suspected carcinogen. Based on known land uses, 5 sites in the Valley were identified as most likely to be affected by pesticide use, and so water samples were collected and analyzed for 42 pesticides, including organochlorine, organophosphate insecticides, and triazine herbicides. The 50 groundwater sites sampled were selected to characterize the water chemistry of the Valley’s bedrock aquifer. Most of the chemical constituents in groundwater samples collected in the Valley (including pesticides) did not exceed drinking-water standards established by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA 1988a, b). Concentrations of fecal coliform and fecal streptococcus bacteria, radon, manganese, and pH commonly exceeded the federal drinking-water standards. Manganese concentrations exceeded USEPA secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCLs) at 20% of the groundwater sites sampled, but iron concentrations exceeded SMCLs in only 2% of the sites. The contaminants of most concern were bacteria and radon. Fecal coliform bacteria were detected at 22% of the sites, and fecal streptococcus bacteria were detected at 48% of the sites. At 8 (67%) of 12 sites sampled for radon, concentrations, i.e., activity levels, exceeded the proposed USEPA maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 300 picocuries per liter. The pH at 16 (32%) of the 50 groundwater sites sampled was either above the 8.5 upper SMCL limit or below the 6.5 lower limit for drinking water specified by the USEPA. Of the 16 sites with pH values outside drinking-water standards, 12 had pH at or below the minimum drinking-water standard. The low-pH waters may be a result of pyrite (iron complexes) oxidation. Based on the 5 samples analyzed, pesticides were not found or were detected in very low concentrations and thus were not generally considered to be a problem. Wetlands One of the most notable features of the Valley is its large wetland complex. These wetlands are a mosaic of wetland types with many varied attributes and microhabitats. Denitrification. In 1992, the USGS in cooperation with WVDEP conducted a study of environmental factors that influence denitrification,i.e., the rate at which nitrate and nitrite are converted to atmospheric nitrogen (Chambers 1996). This study was originally conceived to assess the capability of the Valley’s wetlands to remove sewage-derived nutrients and serve as a site for tertiary wastewater Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 97 treatment. Wastewater discharges increase the amount of nutrients in a stream, resulting in increased primary production and, therefore, higher biochemical oxygen demand. In some environments several genera of bacteria have evolved metabolic pathways that use nitrate and nitrite as electron acceptors, reducing nitrate through several steps to diatomic nitrogen, which then diffuses to the atmosphere. Wetlands have been used successfully to remove nitrogen and other nutrients from wastewater, but the success of wetland treatment depends upon many environmental factors including wetland type, vegetation, soil environment, and climate. It was unclear whether the combinations of environmental factors that exist in the Valley favor the use of the wetland wastewater treatment. The study compared the vegetation and soil characteristics in 4 distinct wetland types: a persistent-emergent wetland, a scrub-shrub wetland, a moss-lichen wetland, and riverine wetland (Fig. 6). The wetland types vary significantly in vegetation, soil chemistry, and soil microenvironments. All 4 wetland types were located within a 1600-ft (500-m) radius (near the golf driving range ) in Canaan Valley State Park. The close proximity of the wetland habitats eliminated climatic effects as potentially confounding influences. At each site, a series of soil cores were collected from the top 11.8 in (30 cm) of the wetland. One core was collected in a core liner with ports every 0.8 in (2 cm) to allow insertion of pH and temperature probes. One core sample was used for analyses of concentrations of organic carbon, nutrients, and major ions. A third core sample was used to estimate population densities of denitrifying bacteria. Additionally, plant communities were surveyed in each wetland type except the riverine wetland, which had no rooted macrophytes. The moss-lichen wetland was characterized by low pH (3.4–5.0), small populations of denitrifying bacteria (70–400 per gram of wet soil; Fig.7), and a preponderance of sedges, with a moss groundcover. The scrub-shrub wetland was also acidic (pH 4.0–5.0), but supported larger numbers of denitrifying bacteria (510–11,000 per gram of wet soil). Alnus incana ssp. rugosa (Du Roi) R.T. Clausen (Speckled Alder) dominated this area and Sphagnum spp. (peat mosses) and Polytrichum spp. (hair-cap mosses) formed the groundcover. The number of denitrifying bacteria in the persistent-emergent wetland exceeded 1,000,000 per gram of wet soil in the early summer, and pH in this habitat was higher (5.1–6.6) than in the bogs. Spiraea spp. (spirea) shrubs and Calamagrostris canadensis (Michx.) P. Beauv. (Bluejoint Grass ) dominated this area. In the riverine wetland, pH ranged from 5.4 to 6.9 and the number of denitrifying bacteria ranged from 200 to 11,000 per gram of wet soil. The striking variation in the population density of denitrifying bacteria found in the persistent-emergent wetland, which was more like a wet meadow in structure, was likely due to the dominance of the rooted macrophytes found in this wetland type. A thin oxygenated layer forms around the roots of these plants in this otherwise anoxic environment, providing an aerobic–anaerobic interface favorable for denitrification. Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 98 Peat resource. Peat, accumulations of partially or un-decomposed organic matter (Mitsch and Gosselink 1993), is an economically important resource throughout the world, used as both fuel and soil additive. In the 1960s, the late Cornelia Cameron, an economic geologist for the USGS, assessed the Valley’s peatlands to determine if they represented an economically important resource (Cameron 1970). Although peatlands are common in recently glaciated regions, they are much more rare in the unglaciated portions of Figure 6. Location of denitrification study area showing wetland habitat types. Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 99 Figure 7. Most probable number of denitrifying bacteria per gram of wet soil from 4 wetland types: persistent-emergent wetland, moss-lichen bog, scrub-shrub wetland, and riverine wetland, in Canaan Valley, WV. North America. Cameron characterized peat-deposit quantity, quality, and age in the Valley, as well as in 11 other bogs along the Allegheny Front in West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. Cameron identified 12 peat deposits in the Valley. She collected core samples from numerous locations in each deposit. These samples were used to determine the depth, quality, and age of the peat. The 7 deposits located in the alluvium of shallow stream valleys were of poor quality and without commercial potential. The remaining 5 deposits were located on broad terraces in the northern part of the Valley (Fig. 8), 5–10 ft (1.5–3 m) thick, and of sufficient quality and quantity to be commercially valuable. The large peat deposits formed in bedrock depressions in the terraces, which are about 10 ft (3 m) above current stream levels (Fig. 9). A representative peat core showed that the peat was underlain by light blue-gray pond clay over which peaty clay, clayey peat, and layers of reed-sedge and sphagnum peat had been deposited. Actively growing sphagnum mosses blanket this peat. Radiocarbon dating estimates the oldest peat to be ~5250 ± 250 yrs old. Discussion Over the past 8 decades, the USGS has conducted a series of investigations in the Valley and its environs. Researchers have examined its surface and groundwater hydrology, its wetland biogeochemistry, and assessed the quality of its peat resources. These investigations have contributed to our understanding of the Valley’s ecosystem. Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 100 Figure 9. Profile along core traverse across deposit I-4 (see Fig. 8). (Adapted from Cameron 1970). Figure 8. Sketch map of the northern part of Canaan Valley showing locations of peat deposits. Deposits I-1 through I-5 contain peat with commercial potential. (Adapted from Cameron 1970). Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 101 There still remains much work to be done. The hydrology of the northern part of the Valley should be studied in depth. Kozar’s (1996) investigation of groundwater resources was limited to the southern end of the Valley, where development and water uses are greatest. Several aspects of the Valley’s hydrology remain largely unknown and require further study. Although much work has been undertaken in the Valley’s wetlands, their role in controlling stream chemistry is poorly understood. Previous research has demonstrated that manganese and iron species are partitioned between surface and groundwater pools, but the reason that the Valley’s surface waters have much higher concentrations than groundwater is unknown, as is whether this pattern is due to metal–humic-acid complexing or other processes. Additionally, more data are needed to understand the influences of human activities on water quality and aquatic life. Lastly, a further investigation of the basic hydrology, water quality, and biogeochemistry of the Valley is needed to address these issues. Literature Cited Cameron, C.C. 1970. Peat resources of the unglaciated uplands along the Allegheny Structural Front in West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 700-D. D153–D1, Charleston, WV. 61 pp. Chambers, D.B. 1996. Physical, chemical, and biological data for four wetland types in Canaan Valley, West Virginia. US Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 95-334, Charleston, WV. Clarkson, R.B. 1964, Tumult on the Mountains. McClain Publishing Company, Parsons, WV. 401 pp. Fortney, R.H., 1977. A bit of Canada gone astray. Wonderful West Virginia 41:24–31. Friel, E.A., W.N. Embree, A.R. Jack, and J.T. Atkins, Jr. 1989. Low-flow characteristics of streams in West Virginia. US Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 88-4072, Charleston, WV. Kozar, M.D. 1996. Geohydrology and groundwater quality of southern Canaan Valley, Tucker County, West Virginia. US Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigation Report 96-4103, Charleston, WV. Little, M.L., and M.C. Waldron. 1996. West Virginia: Wetland resources. Pp. 399–404, In J.D. Fretwell, J.S. Williams, and P.J. Redman (Eds.). National Water Summary on Wetland Resources. US Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425, Charleston, WV. Matchen, D.L., N. Fedroko, B.M. Blake, Jr. 1999. Geology of Canaan Valley. West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey Open-File Report 9902, (1:24,000 scale map) 1 sheet. Morgantown, WV. Mitsch, W.J., and J.G. Gosselink. 1993. Wetlands, 2nd Edition. Van Nostrand, Reinhold, NY. 722 pp. Reger, D.B., W.A. Price, and R.C. Tucker. 1923. Tucker County geologic report. West Virginia Geological Survey, Morgantown, WV. 542 pp. US Census Bureau. 1991. 1990 census of population and housing: Summary population and housing characteristics, West Virginia. US Government Printing Office, 1990 CPH-1-50, Washington, D.C. 174 pp. Southeastern Naturalist D.B. Chambers, J.B. Wiley, and M.D. Kozar 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 102 US Census Bureau. 2002. Quick facts on States, Tucker County WV. Available online at http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/54/54093.html. Accessed 3 September 2002. US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1988a. Maximum contaminant levels (subpart B of part 141, National interim primary drinking water regulations): US Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Parts 100 to 149, revised as of 1 July 1988. Pp. 530–533. USEPA. 1988b. Secondary maximum contaminant levels (section 143.3 of part 143, National secondary drinking water regulations): US Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Parts 100 to 149, revised as of 1 July 1988. P. 608. US Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Off-road vehicle use and impact in Canaan Valley, Tucker County, West Virginia. West Virginia Field Office special project report 93-2, Elkins, WV. Waldron, M.C., and J.B. Wiley. 1996. Water quality and processes affecting dissolved oxygen concentrations in the Blackwater River, Canaan Valley, West Virginia. US Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 95-4142, Charleston, WV. 85 pp. Ward, S.M., B.C. Taylor, and G.R. Crosby. 2002. Water Resources Data, West Virginia, water year 2001. US Geological Survey Water-Data Report WV-01-1, Charleston, WV. 255 pp. Wiley, J.B., J.T. Atkins, and G.D. Tasker. 2000. Estimating magnitude and frequency of peak discharges for rural, unregulated, streams in West Virginia. US Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4080, Charleston, WV. 93 pp.