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Exotic and Invasive Plants in Canaan Valley
William N. Grafton and Ronald H. Fortney

Southeastern Naturalist, Volume 14, Special Issue 7 (2015): 210–217

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Southeastern Naturalist W.N. Grafton and R.H. Fortney 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 210 Canaan Valley & Environs 2015 Southeastern Naturalist 14(Special Issue 7):210–217 Exotic and Invasive Plants in Canaan Valley William N. Grafton1, 3 and Ronald H. Fortney2, 3 Abstract - The rare plants and unusual wetland communities of Canaan Valley are potentially threatened by establishment of exotic and invasive plants. We consulted various references and assembled a list of 106 invasive and/or exotic plant species that have been found growing in Canaan Valley; the most speciose families are Poaceae (grasses), Fabaceae (legumes), and Asteraceae (sunflowers). We recommend that diverse local stakeholders cooperate to plan and implement a program to prevent the establishment of highly invasive plants in Canaan Valley. Introduction Canaan Valley (hereafter, the Valley), in Tucker County of northeastern West Virginia, is a high-elevation oval basin. Oriented northeast–southwest, the Valley’s floor is 13.0 miles (21.7 km) long, averages 2.4 miles (4.0 km) wide, and is about 3298 feet (999 m) above sea level. On the Valley’s eastern side, the highest points of Cabin Mountain range from 3904 to 4402 feet (1183–1334 m) above sea level; to the west, the ridge that includes Canaan and Brown Mountains reaches 3462 to 3875 feet (1049–1174 m). The high point on the Valley’s northern side is 3656 feet (1108 m) in elevation. Until it was timbered during 1907–1924, the Valley’s floor supported an excellent example of a virgin Picea rubens Sarg. (Red Spruce) forest (Allard and Leonard 1952). In contrast, the Valley’s slopes were covered primarily by northern hardwoods, and remain so today. Red Spruce has not regenerated on the Valley’s floor, and thickets and openings dominate its present landscape. Allard and Leonard (1952) provided an early description of the Valley’s ecology: “After the forest had been cut and its debris and all the humus layers destroyed by drying and by fire, thousands of pounds of mixed grass seed were brought in and sowed over the drier exposed soils of the area. At one time or another crops of potato and other vegetables were attempted on a large scale on some of the better soils near Glade Run. None of those efforts gave an adequate return and all traces of these temporary cultural communities have disappeared. In place of the tame grasses, timothy, orchard grass, red top and the clovers, the wild oat grasses (Danthonia) have gained the ascendancy and dominate great areas on the better upland soils. In the less elevated, wetter, more marshy areas, wide stretches of hair-cap moss (Polytrichum), broken by patches of sphagnum in the more boggy depressions, occupy the ground. In August these bogs become 1West Virginia University Extension Service, 29 Beechurst Avenue, Morgantown, WV 26506. 2Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, West Virginia University, PO Box 6103, Morgantown, WV 26506. 3Deceased; address correspondence to: rpreston@ comcast.net. Southeastern Naturalist W.N. Grafton and R.H. Fortney 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 211 conspicuously whitened with almost pure stands of cotton grass (Eriophorum virginicum L.).” Exotic invasives and weeds are known problems, but native plants can also become invasive. Again quoting Allard and Leonard (1952): “Native weedy plants appear everywhere, including chiefly fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium), bull thistle (Cirsium pumilum), brake (Pteridium aquilinum var. latisculum), hay-scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula), everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea), cudweed (Gnaphalium macounii Greene), goldenrods (Solidago graminifolia (L.) Salisb., S. uliginosa Nutt., S. rugosa Ait.), aster (Aster umbellatus Mill.), hawkweeds (Hieracium auranticum, H. pratense), buttercup (Ranunculus acris L.), and ox-eye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. var. pinnatifidum Lecoq. & Lamotte).” Fortney (1975) later observed that Spiraea alba Du Roi (White Meadowsweet) had also spread. Allard and Leonard (1952) further observed that, “A biotic factor, represented by hundreds of head of grazing stock, is now producing great modification in the grass and weed successions which naturally established themselves following the complete destruction of the spruce forest. These animals by their highly selective feeding upon the finer grasses, and their avoidance of the ranker less palatable forbs, including the thistles, goldenrods, asters, everlasting, and others, are tending to restrict the grasses and to favor the extension of the latter. In some areas this has amounted to excessive grazing, and the forbs have correspondingly increased. On the higher, more rocky ridges, the latter completely control the situation.” Evidence indicates that attempts to create cattle pastures were largely failures. Agrostis gigantea Roth (Redtop Grass) is common today, likely the result of past agricultural activities. This paper updates the picture of the Valley’s exotic and invasive plant species and presents an inventory with the goal of protecting the Valley’s rare plant species and communities. Results We compiled the following list of the Valley’s exotic and invasive plant species from several sources. Early publications include Allard and Leonard (1952) and Fortney (1975). More recently, Michael (1993) and Norris (1997) updated the Valley’s exotic flora. We combined the contents of the two latter papers and various unpublished surveys into a category we classified as 1990+. In the following list, the 3 designations of Allard, Fortney, and 1990+ indicate the source(s) that reported the presence of each species. Gymnospermae (conifers and others) 1990+ Pinus resinosa Sol. ex Aiton (Red Pine) 1990+ Pinus sylvestris L. (Scotch Pine) 1990+ Juniperus virginiana L. (Eastern Red Cedar) Southeastern Naturalist W.N. Grafton and R.H. Fortney 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 212 Angiospermae (flowering plants) Poaceae Fortney 1990+ Agrostis capillaris L. (Colonial Bent Grass) Allard, Fortney 1990+ Anthoxanthum odoratum L. (Sweet Vernal Grass) Allard Fortney, 1990+ Bromus commutatus Schrad. (Hairy Chess) 1990+ Bromus inermis Leyss. (Smooth Brome) 1990+ Bromus japonicus Thunb. ex Murr. (Japanese Brome) Fortney 1990+ Dactylis glomerata L. (Orchard Grass) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Elymus repens (L.) Gould (Quackgrass) Fortney, 1990+ Festuca pratensis Huds. (Meadow Fescue) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Holcus lanatus L. (Velvet Grass) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Hordeum jubatum L. (Foxtail Barley) 1990+ Lolium arundinaceum L. (Kentucky 31 Fescue) Fortney Lolium perenne L. (Perennial Ryegrass) Fortney, 1990+ Phalaris arundinacea L. (Reed Canary Grass) Allard, 1990+ Phleum pratense L. (Timothy-grass) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Poa annua L. (Annual Bluegrass) 1990+ Poa compressa L. (Canada Bluegrass) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Poa pratensis L. (Kentucky Bluegrass) 1990+ Poa trivialis L. (Rough Bluegrass) Iridaceae 1990+ Iris pseudoacorus L. (Yellow Iris) 1990+ Iris versicolor L. (Northern Blue Flag) 1990+ Iris virginica L. (Virginia Iris) Liliaceae 1990+ Allium ampeloprasm L. (Wild Leek) 1990+ Asparagus officinalis L. (Asparagus) Salicaceae 1990+ Populus alba L. (White Poplar) Fortney Salix fragilis L. (Crack Willow) Polygonaceae Allard, Fortney Polygonum aviculare L. (Common Knotgrass) Allard, Fortney Polygonum persicaria L. (Lady’s Thumb) Fortney, 1990+ Rumex acetosella L. (Sheep’s Sorrel) Allard, Fortney 1990+ Rumex crispus L. (Curly Dock) Allard, Fortney 1990+ Rumex obtusifolius L. (Broad-leaved Dock) Chenopodiaceae Allard, Fortney Chenopodium album L. (Lamb’s Quarters) Amaranthaceae Allard, Fortney Amaranthus retroflexus L. (Red-rooted Pigweed) Aizoaceae Allard Fortney 1990+ Mollugo verticillata L. (Carpetweed) Southeastern Naturalist W.N. Grafton and R.H. Fortney 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 213 Portulacaceae Fortney, 1990+ Portulaca oleracea L. (Common Purslane) Carophyllaceae Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Cerastium fontanum Baumg. (Mouse-ear Chickweed) 1990+ Cerastium glomeratum Thuill. (Clammy Chickweed) 1990+ Dianthus armeria L. (Deptford Pink) Fortney Saponaria officinalis L. (Bouncing-bet) Fortney, 1990+ Stellaria graminea L. (Grassleaf Starwort) Ranunculaceae Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Ranunculus acris L. (Tall Buttercup) Fortney, 1990+ Ranunculus repens L. (Creeping Buttercup) Berberidaceae 1990+ Berberis thunbergii DC. (Japanese Barberry) Brassicaceae Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. (Winter Cress) Allard, Fortney Brassica rapa L. (Bird Rape) Allard, Fortney Lepidium campestre (L.) W.T. Aiton (Field Pepperweed) Allard, Fortney Lepidium densiflorum Schrad. (Common Pepperweed) Rosaceae Allard, Fortney Fragaria vesca L. (Woodland Strawberry) 1990+ Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. (Crab Apple) Fortney, 1990+ Potentilla recta L. (Sulphur Cinquefoil) Fortney, 1990+ Rosa multiflora Thunb. ex Murr. (Multiflora Rose) Fortney Rubus phoenicolasius Maxim. (Wineberry) Fabaceae 1990+ Securigera varia (L.) Lassen (Crown Vetch) 1990+ Lespedeza cuneata (Dum. Cours.) G. Don (Sericea) 1990+ Lotus corniculatus L. (Birdsfoot Trefoil) Fortney, 1990+ Medicago lupulina L. (Black Medic) Fortney, 1990+ Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall. (Yellow Sweet Clover) Allard, Fortney Trifolium arvense L. (Rabbitfoot Clover) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Trifolium aureum Pollich (Yellow Hop Clover) Fortney Trifolium campestre Schreb. (Low Hop Clover) Fortney 1990+ Trifolium hybridum L. (Alsike Clover) Fortney 1990+ Trifolium pratense L. (Red Clover) Fortney, 1990+ Trifolium repens L. (White Clover) Oxalidaceae Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Oxalis stricta L. (Upright Yellow Wood-sorrel) Southeastern Naturalist W.N. Grafton and R.H. Fortney 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 214 Geraniaceae 1990+ Geranium columbinum L. (Long-stalked Crane’s-bill) Malvaceae Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Malva moschata L. (Musk Mallow) Clusiaceae Fortney, 1990+ Hypericum perforatum L. (Common St. John’s Wort) 1990+ Hypericum punctatum Lam. (Spotted St. John’s Wort) Elaeagnaceae Fortney, 1990+ Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. (Autumn Olive) Apiaceae Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Daucus carota L. (Queen Anne’s Lace) Fortney, 1990+ Pastinaca sativa L. (Parsnip) Ericaceae Allard Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull (Heather) Allard, 1990+ Erica tetralix L. (Cross-leaved Heath) Boraginaceae Fortney, 1990+ Echium vulgare L. (Viper’s Bugloss) Lamiaceae Allard, Fortney Galeopsis bifida Boenn. (Splitlip Hemp-nettle) Fortney, 1990+ Glechoma hederacea L. (Ground-ivy) 1990+ Mentha x piperita L. (Peppermint) Fortney, 1990+ Prunella vulgaris L. (Common Self-heal) Solanaceae Fortney, 1990+ Solanum dulcamara L. (Bittersweet Nightshade) Scrophulariaceae Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Linaria vulgaris Mill. (Butter-and-Eggs) Fortney 1990+ Verbascum thapsus L. (Great Mullein) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Veronica officinalis L. (Common Speedwell) Fortney Veronica serpyllifolia L. (Thyme-leaved Speedwell) Plantaginaceae Fortney, 1990+ Plantago lanceolata L. (Ribwort Plantain) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Plantago major L. (Greater Plantain) Rubiaceae Fortney, 1990+ Galium album Mill. (White Bedstraw) Dipsacaceae Allard, Fortney 1990+ Dipsacus fullonum L. (Fuller’s Teasel) Asteraceae Fortney, 1990+ Achillea millefolium L. (Yarrow) Fortney Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh. (Lesser Burdock) Southeastern Naturalist W.N. Grafton and R.H. Fortney 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 215 1990+ Cichorium intybus L. (Common Chicory) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. (Canada Thistle) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. (Common Thistle) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Crepis capillaris (L.) Wallr. (Smooth Hawksbeard) Allard, Fortney Hieracium auranticum L. (Orange Hawkweed) Fortney Hieracium pilosella L. (Mouse-ear Hawkweed) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Hieracium caespitosum Dumort (Field Hawkweed) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Leucanthemum vulgare Lam. (Ox-eye Daisy) Fortney, 1990+ Matricaria discoidea DC. (Pineapple Weed) Allard, Fortney Sonchus arvensis L. (Field Sow Thistle) 1990+ Sonchus oleraceus L. (Annual Sow Thistle) Allard, Fortney, 1990+ Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg (Common Dandelion) Allard, Fortney Tragopogon dubius Scop. (Goat’s Beard) 1990+ Tragopogon pratensis L. (Showy Goat’s Beard) 1990+ Tussilago farfara L. (Coltsfoot) Of the 106 species listed above, most are not likely to outcompete or displace the Valley’s indigenous plants. Many of these invasive plants exist only in disturbed sites such as roadsides, golf courses, yards, and farmlands. Redtop Grass, a native grass that was introduced for pastures, is common in the Valley and probably will continue to persist at present levels. Other grasses and weeds that seem to have reached balanced populations at fairly low levels are Velvet Grass, Sweet Vernal Grass, Timothy-grass, Tall Buttercup, Curly Dock, Broad-leaved Dock, Upright Yellow Wood-sorrel and Sheep Sorrel, Queen Anne’s Lace, Common Dandelion, Smooth Hawksbeard, Orange and Field Hawkweeds, Ox-eye Daisy, and Fuller’s Teasel. Except where human activity occurs regularly, the clovers listed as common by Allard and Leonard (1952) have largely disappeared from the Valley’s floor. Reed Canary Grass was found by Allard and Leonard (1952) near Davis, was uncommon in Fortney’s mid-1970s survey, and today often grows as invasive patches. Strausbaugh and Core (1977) considered Reed Canary Grass to be native along the Ohio River, so this grass should be recognized as an invasive threat to the Valley’s wet grasslands and riverbanks. Other exotic plant species that are present in the Valley and that could be aggressively invasive include White Bedstraw, Canada Thistle, Bittersweet Nightshade, Crown Vetch, Common Chicory, Viper’s Bugloss, Yellow Iris, and Wineberry. We believe that non-native shrubs and trees with a high potential to become invasive are Red Pine, Scotch Pine, Lonicera morrowii A. Gray (Morrow’s Honeysuckle), Multiflora Rose, and Japanese Barberry. At least three large clonal colonies of White Poplar, which invades through root suckers, are growing in the Valley and should be exterminated. Plantings of Scotch and Red Pines should also be eradicated. Two unusual exotics, Heather and Cross-leaved Heath, grow near the divide between the Valley and Stony River. They were discovered by Allard in 1942 (Clarkson 1958). Heather has apparently been extirpated by local people; Southeastern Naturalist W.N. Grafton and R.H. Fortney 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 216 Cross-leaved Heath continues to persist but is not spreading. Betula papyrifera var. cordifolia (Regel) Fern. (Mountain Paper Birch), which may be introduced or native, also occurs at this site. A comprehensive program to prevent the establishment of highly invasive plants in the Valley should be implemented. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle (Tree-of-heaven), Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (Common Reed), Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A. Camus (Japanese Stilt Grass), Centaurea maculosa Lam. (Spotted Knapweed), and Typha angustifolia L. (Narrow-leaved Cattail) have not been documented in the Valley, but they are highly invasive exotics (NHP 2009, Stevens and Hoag 2006, Strausbaugh and Core 1977) that, if allowed to become established, would degrade native biodiversity and be costly to eradicate or even control. Logging continues to be a major economic activity on the slopes forming the Valley’s northern end and around Big Cove, which lies in the headwaters of the Little Blackwater River. Home and commercial construction continues slowly in the Valley’s southern end and will likely accelerate when sewage and water problems are resolved. Projects that move earth, including landscaping, road reclamation, forestry operations, and developing recreational access sites will create the most habitat for exotic plant establishment. Although the Valley is not presently infested with any highly invasive exotic plants, the potential for them to overrun disturbed habitats is real. Control of Invasive Plants Monitoring existing and newly documented invasive exotic and native plants is the essential first step to control invasive plants. Towards that end, conditions in the Valley pose unique challenges. Land ownership is split among federal and state natural resource agencies, individual landowners, and corporate entities. Further, there have been long-standing conflicts between pro- and anti-development interests. Other factors in management and planning include the presence of rare plant species, unusual plant communities, and endangered animals. To work toward solutions, we believe that a consortium of people with vested interests in the Valley’s natural resources should be organized to undertake education, monitoring, control, and eradication efforts. A partial list of these stakeholders includes Timberline Resort, Black Bear Woods, Deerfield Village Resort, the Valley’s realtors and riding stables, USDA Forest Service-Monongahela National Forest, US Fish and Wildlife Service-Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge, West Virginia (WV) Department of Natural Resources-Canaan Valley State Park and Resort, WV Department of Highways, WV Department of Agriculture, Allegheny Energy, Western Pocahontas Properties, The Nature Conservancy, WV Native Plant Society, and individual landowners. When an invasive plant species is targeted for management actions, managers will have to determine the best way to control each species. Mechanical, chemical (herbicides), and biological controls, or some mix of the three, are options to control or eradicate invasive plant populations. Sources of information on Southeastern Naturalist W.N. Grafton and R.H. Fortney 2015 Vol. 14, Special Issue 7 217 control methods include printed materials, person-to-person consultations, and the websites of universities, non-governmental organizations like The Nature Conservancy, and federal and state natural resource agencies such as the National Park Service and USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service. Literature Cited Allard, H.A., and E.C. Leonard. 1952. The Canaan and the Stony River valleys of West Virginia, their former magnificent spruce forests, their vegetation and floristics today. Castanea 17:1–60. Clarkson, R.B. 1958. Scotch Heather in North America. Castanea 23:119–130. Fortney, R.H. 1975. The vegetation of Canaan Valley, West Virginia: A taxonomic and ecological study. Ph.D. Dissertation, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV. 235 pp. Kartesz, J.T. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland, 2nd Edition. Vol. 1—Checklist. Timber Press, Portland, OR. 622 pp. Michael, E.D. 1993. An evaluation of the wetland and upland habitats and associated wildlife resources in southern Canaan Valley. Final report submitted to the Canaan Valley Task Force. West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV. 170 pp. Natural Heritage Program (NHP). 2009. Invasive plant species of West Virginia. West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, Elkins, WV. Available online at http://www. wvdnr.gov/wildlife/Handout%20Invasive%20Plants%20of%20WV%202009.pdf. Accessed 30 September 2014. Norris, S.J. 1997. Vegetation study of the grasslands of Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge. Technical Report, WV Department of Natural Resources, Elkins, WV. Stevens, M., and C. Hoag. 2006. Narrow leaf Cattail, Typha angustifolia L. Plant Guide, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Available online at http://plants. usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_tyan.pdf. Accessed 30 September 2014. Strausbaugh, P.D., and E.L. Core. 1977. Flora of West Virginia, 2nd Edition. Seneca Books, Grantsville, WV. 1079 pp.