A Backyard Puma in Costa Rica: Translocation As a Successful Management Option
Victor H. Montalvo1*, Carolina Sáenz-Bolaños1, Isabel Hagnauer2, Juan C. Cruz-Díaz3, Pablo Vásquez4, Shirley Ramírez4, Todd K. Fuller5, and Eduardo Carrillo1
1Instituto Internacional en Conservación y Manejo de Vida Silvestre, Universidad Nacional, Apdo. 1350-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica. 2ZooAve, Fundación Restauración de la Naturaleza. Apdo. 1327- 4050, Alajuela, Costa Rica. 3Namá Conservation, Heredia 40101, Costa Rica. 4Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía, Departamento de Vida Silvestre, Apdo. 10127-1000, San José, Costa Rica. 5Department of Environmental Conservation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA. *Corresponding author.
Urban Naturalist Notes, No. 1 (2022)
Abstract
In Costa Rica, most Pumas inhabit forested and rural areas, but during the last decade Puma sightings have increased in urban areas, sometimes resulting in distress to both humans and Pumas. Here we assess the success of translocating an adult male Puma 28 km from the suburbs of San Jose, Costa Rica to Braulio Carrillo National Park and monitored for 87 days post-release via satellite telemetry (n = 445 locations). The Puma used an area of 135 km2 and movements indicated “settling” behavior. This Puma used mostly areas of forest relatively nearer to streams and in proximity to protected areas and did not return to urban areas. Our translocation effort seemed to be an effective means of reducing conflict or potential conflict between Pumas and urban residents, however every translocation should be analyzed individually.
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Volume 9, 2022 Urban Naturalist Notes No. 1
A Backyard Puma in
Costa Rica: Translocation
As a Successful
Management Option
Victor H. Montalvo, Carolina Sáenz-Bolaños, Isabel
Hagnauer, Juan C. Cruz-Díaz, Pablo Vásquez, Shirley
Ramírez, Todd K. Fuller, and Eduardo Carrillo
Urban Naturalist
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Cover Photograph: Local firefighters assisting with the translocation of an adult male Puma captured in
the San Juan de Tibás suburbs of San Jose, Costa Rica. Photograph © I. Hagnauer.
Urban Naturalist Notes
V.H. Montalvo et. al.
Vol. 9, 2022 N1:1–7
1
2021
A Backyard Puma in Costa Rica:
Translocation As a Successful Management Option
Victor H. Montalvo1*, Carolina Sáenz-Bolaños1, Isabel Hagnauer2, Juan C. Cruz-
Díaz3, Pablo Vásquez4, Shirley Ramírez4, Todd K. Fuller5, and Eduardo Carrillo1
Abstract - In Costa Rica, most Pumas inhabit forested and rural areas, but during the last decade Puma
sightings have increased in urban areas, sometimes resulting in distress to both humans and Pumas. Here
we assess the success of translocating an adult male Puma 28 km from the suburbs of San Jose, Costa Rica
to Braulio Carrillo National Park and monitored for 87 days post-release via satellite telemetry (n = 445 locations).
The Puma used an area of 135 km2 and movements indicated “settling” behavior. This Puma used
mostly areas of forest relatively nearer to streams and in proximity to protected areas and did not return
to urban areas. Our translocation effort seemed to be an effective means of reducing conflict or potential
conflict between Pumas and urban residents, however every translocation should be analyzed individually.
Introduction. In Costa Rica, Puma (Puma concolor Linnaeus) populations still regularly
occur in protected and rural areas (Carrillo et al. 1999, Wainwright 2007), but Puma sightings
in urban areas also have increased in the last decade. Their occurrence in urban areas is
of consequence to both Pumas and humans, because conflict could arise if a Puma preys on
domestic pets or otherwise frequents backyards and scares residents (Fontúrbel and Simonetti
2011, Linnell et al. 1997). Non-lethal methods are highly recommended to deal with humancarnivore
conflict in such areas (Priatna et al. 2012, Weise et al. 2015), and thus translocation
of “problem” animals has become an option for management and conservation (Fontúrbel and
Simonetti 2011, Linnell et al. 1997). But despite a wealth of recent research on and management
of Pumas across their range (e.g., Hornocker and Negri 2010), only a few studies have followed
up the behavior and fate of translocated Pumas after release (Adania et al. 2017, Belden
and Hagedorn 1993, Ross and Jalkotzy 1995, Ruth et al. 1998), and much less is known about
Puma movements in Central America than other regions (Laundre and Hernandez 2010). Here
we report on the movements and habitat use patterns of an adult male Puma translocated from
an urban area to the nearest protected area and monitored for 3 months and reflect on translocation
as an effective conflict-mitigation strategy.
Methods. This tale began on 9 March 2019 in the San Juan de Tibás suburb area about
4 km north of downtown San José, the capital city of Costa Rica (pop. = 2.1 million
in metropolitan area; https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/costa_rica.htm) (Fig. 1;
9°57'38N, 84°04'47W). Elevation in Tibás ranges from 900 m to 1150 m, with an average
temperature of 23°C and annual precipitation of 290 cm (Instituto Meteorológico
Nacional, San José, Costa Rica; https://www.imn.ac.cr/en/mapa). The capture site was
adjacent to a riparian corridor of the Río Virilla that extends east towards its headwaters
near Irazu Volcano and south of Braulio Carrillo National Park (BCNP; 600–1,500 m
elevation) where the Puma was subsequently translocated. The 476-km2 BCNP was es-
1Instituto Internacional en Conservación y Manejo de Vida Silvestre, Universidad Nacional, Apdo.
1350-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica. 2ZooAve, Fundación Restauración de la Naturaleza. Apdo. 1327-
4050, Alajuela, Costa Rica. 3Namá Conservation, Heredia 40101, Costa Rica. 4Ministerio de Ambiente
y Energía, Departamento de Vida Silvestre, Apdo. 10127-1000, San José, Costa Rica. 5Department
of Environmental Conservation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA.
*Corresponding author: victor.montalvo.guadamuz@una.cr.
Associate Editor: Michael Strohbach, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Geoecology.
Vol. 9, 2022 URBAN NATURALIST NOTES N1:1–7
Urban Naturalist Notes
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tablished in 1978 and is located in the central mountain range of Costa Rica; more than
90% of the park is covered in primary forest.
A Puma that was apparently unable to escape from a walled backyard of neighborhood
house prompted a “911” emergency call from a local resident, resulting in a response from
personnel of the Tibás fire and police departments who were subsequently joined by a veterinarian,
by personnel from the Ministry of Environment and Energy, and by researchers
from the National University. We immobilized the Puma using a dart projectile (Dan-Inject,
Kolding, Denmark; https://www.dan-inject.com) filled with a combination of 5 mg/kg of
ketamine (Bremer Pharma GmbH, Warburg, Germany) and 2mg/kg xylazine (Procin Equus
10%, Pisa Agropecuaria). The 39-kg adult (indicated by tooth wear) male was fitted with
a GPS collar (Lotek Engineering, Newmarket, ON, Canada; http://www.lotek.com) programmed
to record the Puma’s position every 2 hours. Three hours after immobilization,
the Puma was released in Braulio Carrillo National Park, 28 km from the capture site and
east of the main highway that crosses the mountain range to the Pacific lowlands (Fig 1.;
10°09'42N, 83°56'14W). Handling and capture protocols followed guidelines of the American
Society of Mammologists (Sikes et al. 2011).
Figure 1. Monthly locations and modified minimum polygon delineation of monthly ranges of a male
Puma translocated from the suburbs of San Jose to Braulio Carrillo National Park in central Costa
Rica on 9 March 2019.
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We used the location data to assess whether or not the Puma settled into a home range
away from urban areas. We estimated the size of the area traversed by the Puma each month
by drawing modified minimum polygons (Harvey and Barbour 1965) after plotting and
connected the sequential locations of the Puma, and assessed temporal changes in movement
rates for each month by summarizing the calculated distances between first locations
on each pair of consecutive days. To test patterns of habitat use, we generated 500 random
locations within the area of a larger 95% autocorrelated kernel range (Signer and Balkenhol
2015; estimated for the entire monitoring period) to contrast (using a c2-test) expected
(random) land used frequencies with observed Puma locations. Available locations were
randomly generated across six land use categories: 1) Forest - primary and secondary forest
(62% availability), 2) Human infrastructure - roads and buildings (6%), 3) Non-forest -
pasture, hayfield, shrubland (17%), 4) Forest plantation (1%), 5) Agriculture - crops, coffee
plantations (1%), and 6) Other - cloud-covered (no data) and un classified (13%).
We also calculated for each location the distance to unpaved roads, urban infrastructure,
forest cover, protected areas, and rivers/streams (i.e., water). The spatial layers were based
on a vegetation coverage produced by Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservación (SINAC;
http://www.sinac.go.cr/EN-US/Pages/default.aspx) and the Costa Rica Digital Atlas (Ortiz-
Malavasi 2014). We fit a set of Generalized lineal Models (GLM), assuming binomial
distribution (Di Blanco et al. 2015), for the previous distance variables to additively test
the intensity of selection related to habitat attributes. The empirical support of candidate
models was evaluated using the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) (Burnham and Anderson
2002), and throughout the model comparison we determined the most plausible models
using the highest Akaike weight (⍵ ; range = 0 to 1; Anderson 2007).
Results and Discussion. In total, 445 locations (42% of potential) were registered during
87 continuous days of post-translocation monitoring (9 March–4 June 2019), and average of ~5
locations per day. Though the Puma’s satellite telemetry collar was programed for a 2-year life,
we lost its signal after 87 days and were unable to identify whether the collar failed, or the Puma
was killed and the collar destroyed. Within an overall 3-month range of 135 km2, monthly range
size decreased from 92 to 32 km2 (Table 1, Fig. 1). As the Puma’s range size decreased, the
average distance moved on consecutive days (1.8 to 2.0 km/day) and the median distance (1.3
to 1.9 km/day) stayed about the same (Table 1). The core area of where it seemed to settle was
about 21 km from its capture location, and 13 km from its release site (Fig. 1).
Habitat use analysis indicated that the Puma was not located in human infrastructure
(6% available), agriculture (1%), or forest plantation (1%) land use categories, and used
forest (74% use) more, and non-forest habitats less, than expected (7% use; c2 = 28.13, P <
0.0001). Although the Puma explored areas closer to San Jose in April, it seemed to retreat
to and settle in more remote areas by May (Fig. 1).
The most plausible and statistically supported distance-related habitat model included
all five variables (Table 2; ⍵=0.99). Distance to each showed a negative relationship with
Puma presence of this single male individual; e.g., as proximity to a variable (e.g., unpaved
roads) increased, so did Puma presence (Table 3). Though all variables assessed show statistical
significance, distance to forest was the most influential v ariable, followed by distance
to water; an additional correlation test showed none between forest and water (t = 0.163,
d.f. = 443, P = 0.870, Cor = 0.008).
Experts state that there are no truly urban Puma populations, only populations abutting
urban areas into which dispersing juveniles and the occasional adult will enter (Beier et al.
2010). This seems the case here with an adult male following a riverine corridor from the
mountains and ending up in a backyard.
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Recent translocation mitigation efforts for large felids, though often politically expedient,
have had mixed success (Hoogesteijn et al. 2020, Morapedi et al. 2021, Priatna et al. 2012,
Weise et al. 2015), and translocation, in general, is a rarely used conservation technique for
Pumas, sometimes considered ineffectual (Sweanor and Logan 2010). Notably, it has been
used successfully for augmenting the population of Florida panthers (Benson et al. 2011,
Hostetler et al. 2013, Johnson et al. 2010), and thus has been suggested as a future measure to
enhance Puma populations isolated by urbanization effects (Vickers et al. 2015). However,
translocations are not much used for mitigating livestock conflicts (Guerisoli et al. 2020), or
especially for removing potential interactions in urban settings. Still, public attitudes indicate
that translocations might be the preferred management options as Puma-human interactions
increase (Manfredo et al. 1998, Thornton and Quinn 2009).
Previous translocations of Pumas seem to suggest that Pumas will settle fairly rapidly and
behave much like non-translocated animals (Belden and Hagedorn 1993, Ross and Jalkotzy
1995, Ruth et al. 1998, Adania et al. 2017). Notably, our report of the translocation of a single
male Puma in Costa Rica is the first done in order to mitigate its occurrence in an urban area. We
moved it 28 km from the capture site assuming that, due to the riparian connectivity from the
capture site (Río Virilla) to a national park, the Puma came from there. Male Pumas dispersing
Table 1. Monthly range size (modified minimum polygon) and daily movements of a translocated
male Puma in central Costa Rica.
Month Range Daily Distance (km) Moveda
Size (km2) N Mean Median Range N
March 92 104 1.92 1.31 0.01-7.30 21
April 49 126 1.80 1.28 0.03-5.59 30
May 32 215 1.99 1.89 0.01-6.36 31
aDistance between first locations on each date on consecutive day s.
Table 2. Ranked candidate models of habitat selection for a male Puma translocated central Costa
Rica (AIC = Akaike Information Criterion; Δ AIC = Akaike Information Criterion differences from
the top model; ⍵ = Likelihood empirical weight).
Modela AIC Δ AIC ⍵
Use ~ DR+ DU +DF + DPA + DW 1129.5 0 0.99
Use ~ DR+ DU +DF + DPA 1140.5 11.1 0.001
Use ~ DR+ DU +DF 1164.3 34.8 <0.001
Use ~ DF 1188.5 59.0 <0.001
Use ~ DR+ DU 1219.4 89.9 <0.001
Use ~ DPA 1220.2 90.8 <0.001
Use ~ DU 1227 97.5 <0.001
Use ~ DW 1227.2 97.8 <0.001
Use ~ DR 1231.9 102.4 <0.001
Use ~ Intercept 1237.2 107.7 <0.002
aDR = Distance to unpaved Roads; DU = Distance to Urban infrastructure; DF = Distance to
Forest cover; DPA = Distance to Protected Areas; DW = Distance to Water.
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from their natal ranges typically move 100 km and more, and when encountering urban areas
often move along wildland-urban edges, make frequent forays in peninsulas of habitat that intrude
into urban areas, and may settle in habitats at the urban edge (Beier et al. 2010). During
the 87 days we monitored the Puma, we documented that it moved from the release location,
explored areas closer to San Jose, then seemed to settle back in more remote areas. The overall
area it used during 3 months (135 km2) was similar to annual home range sizes of resident Pumas
near urban areas elsewhere (Dickson and Beier 2002, Laundré and Loxterman 2007). Also, daily
movements of our male Puma (1.8–2.0 km) were similar to male Pumas monitored in Mexico
(Nuñez and Miller 2019). Habitat use analysis showed the importance of distance to forest cover
and streams to Puma occurrence, followed by distance to protected areas, similar to the pattern
for Pumas across their distribution in the wild (Guerisoli et al. 2019). Use of developed areas by
Pumas substantially increased their risk of mortality (Moss et al. 2016), and thus fear of humans
may be a major factor affecting Puma movements (Nickel et al. 2021, Smith et al. 2019).
Previous post-translocation information on large carnivores indicates that translocated individuals
have reduced survival and reproduction (Linnell et al. 1997), since moving throughout
unknown areas would increase loss of human fear, stress, vehicle collision, and starvation
(Boast et al. 2018, Ruth et al. 1998, Seddon et al. 2012), and sometimes a propensity to return
to original capture sites (Ruth et al. 1998). Common factors associated with successful large
felid translocations suggests that Pumas should be moved to areas of: 1) low density of intrainterspecific
competitors, 2) low human density, 3) high prey availability, and 4) large size
(Belden and Hagedorn 1993, Boast et al. 2018, Hoogesteijn et al. 2020, Priatna et al. 2012);
for Pumas, animals that are not yet of breeding age or established a home range may be more
successful, as well (Sweanor and Logan 2010). Although, there are protocols and translocation
manuals available for some species (e.g., Ceballos 2018), each potential translocation
should be assessed individually to allow translocated individuals to successfully established a
home range (Linnell et al. 1997, Ruth et al. 1998). In addition, it may be useful in the future to
help reduce conflicts with Pumas in urban areas by increasing the awareness of Pumas through
targeted education, facilitating of stakeholder involvement, developing of proactive Puma
management strategies, and exploring adaptive management (Thornton and Quinn 2009).
Acknowledgements
We thank the Tibás fire and police departments for their valuable help during the Puma translocation.
We also thank Fabricio Carbonell from the Área de Conservación Cordillera Volcánica, the two
anonymous reviewers for helping to improve this manuscript and the Project Survival Cat Haven for
donating the satellite collar.
Table 3. Coefficients of explanatory variables of the top model for a resource selection function of a
translocated male Puma in central Costa Rica.
Coefficientsa ß SE Z-value P value
Intercept 1.645 0.215 7.645 < 0.00001
DR -0.003 <0.001 -3.550 < 0.00001
DU -0.001 <0.001 -4.884 < 0.00001
DF -0.229 0.058 -3.961 < 0.00001
DPA -0.007 0.001 -5.022 < 0.00001
DW -0.220 0.006 -3.593 <0.00001
aDR = Distance to unpaved Roads; DU = Distance to Urban infrastructure; DF = Distance to Forest
cover; DPA = Distance to Protected Areas; DW = Distance to Water.
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Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
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